CHINA 


BOOKS  BY  MISS  SINGLETON 


TURRETS,  TOWERS,  AND  TEMPLES.     Great  Buildings  of 

the  World  Described  by  Great  Writers. 
GREAT  PICTURES.    Described  by  Great  Writers. 
WONDERS  OF  NATURE.    Described  by  Great  Writers. 
ROMANTIC  CASTLES  AND  PALACES.    Described  by  Great 

Writers. 

FAMOUS  PAINTINGS.    Described  by  Great  Writers. 
HISTORIC  BUILDINGS.    Described  by  Great  Writers. 
FAMOUS  WOMEN.    Described  by  Great  Writers. 
GREAT  PORTRAITS.    Described  by  Great  Writers. 
HISTORIC  BUILDINGS  OF  AMERICA.    Described  by  Great 

Writers. 
HISTORIC  LANDMARKS  OF  AMERICA.    Described  by  Great 

Writers. 
GREAT    RIVERS   OF  THE   WORLD.     Described    by   Great 

Writers. 

FAMOUS  CATHEDRALS.    Described  by  Great  Writers. 
FAMOUS  SCULPTURE.    Described  by  Great  Writers. 
MODERN  PAINTINGS.    Described  by  Great  Writers. 
WONDERS  OF  THE  WORLD.    Described  by  Great  Writers. 
PARIS.    Described  by  Great  Writers. 
LONDON.    Described  by  Great  Writers. 
RUSSIA.    Described  by  Great  Writers. 
JAPAN.     Described  by  Great  Writers. 
VENICE.    Described  by  Great  Writers. 
HOLLAND.    Described  by  Great  Writers. 
ROME.    Described  by  Great  Writers. 
GERMANY.    Described  by  Great  Writers. 
SWITZERLAND.    Described  by  Great  Writers. 
TURKEY  AND  THE  BALKAN  STATES.    Described  by  Great 

Writers. 

FLORENCE.    Described  by  Great  Writers. 
EGYPT.    Described  by  Great  Writers. 
CHINA.    Described  by  Great  Writers. 
LOVE  IN  LITERATURE  AND  ART. 
THE  GOLDEN  ROD  FAIRY  BOOK. 
THE  WILD  FLOWER  FAIRY  BOOK. 
A  GUIDE  TO  THE  OPERA. 
A  GUIDE  TO  MODERN  OPERA. 
DUTCH   NEW   YORK.     Manners  and   Customs   of   New 

Amsterdam  in  the  Seventeenth  Century. 
How  TO  VISIT  THE  GREAT  PICTURE  GALLERIES. 
How  TO  VISIT  THE  ENGLISH  CATHEDRALS. 


. 


CHINA 

As  Described  by 
Great    Writers 


Collected  and  Edited  by 

ESTHER    SINGLETON 

A  uthor  of '  'Turrets,  Towers  and  Temples, " 

''Great  Pictures,"  "A  Guide  to 

the  Opera,"  etc. 

WITH     NUMEROUS     ILLUSTRATIONS 


Nero 
Dodd,  Mead  and  Company 

1912 


Copyright,  1912,  by 

DODD,  MEAD  &  Co. 

Published,  October, 


STAG! 
ANNUL 


Preface 

POPULAR  opinion  with  regard  to  China  is  rapidly 
changing  as  this  strange  world  is  becoming  better 
known.     Even  now,  it  may  be  almost  termed  an 
untravelled  country,  although  of  late  years  the  tourist  and 
artist  have  been  extending  their  adventures  farther  afield. 
Mr.  Liddell,  who,  in  his  beautiful  book  China:  its  Marvel 
and  Mystery  (London,   1909),  has    given    many  delightful 
pictures  with  both  pen  and  brush,  says  : 

"  China  is  such  a  vast  country,  and  holds  such  wealth  of 
beauty  and  interest  that  an  artist  might  spend  years  and 
then  only  have  taken  the  cream  from  each  place.  .  .  . 
I  venture  to  think  that  if  Europeans  could  but  see  more 
pictures,  realistically  painted,  of  the  natural  and  created 
beauties  of  that  great  Empire,  they  would  form  a  better 
opinion,  not  only  of  the  country,  but  of  the  civilization  and 
very  high  artistic  sense  of  the  people.  .  .  .  My  visit 
to  Japan  was  but  a  short  one,  .  .  .  but  I  could  not 
help  comparing  the  two  countries  artistically,  very  much 
(from  my  point  of  view)  in  favour  of  China,  which,  with 
increased  facilities  for  travelling,  will  become  a  great  holiday 
ground  for,  at  any  rate,  the  wealthier  traveller." 


vi  PREFACE 

Another  artist,  Mortimer  Mempes,  writes  :  "  The  trav- 
eller in  China  is  impressed  with  the  vastness  of  its  extent, 
the  fertility  of  its  various  countries,  the  grandeur  of  its 
rivers,  the  beauty  and  boldness  of  its  bridges,  the  strength 
of  its  city  walls,  the  contrast  of  wealth  or  squalor  in  the 
cities,  the  untiring  industry  of  the  people.  A  more  de- 
tailed knowledge  compels  admiration  for  their  proficiency 
in  arts  and  crafts." 

It  is  manifestly  impossible  in  a  book  of  this  size  to  give 
a  detailed  description  of  eighteen  provinces  covering  a  mil- 
lion and  a  half  square  miles  in  which  there  are  no  less  than 
four  thousand  walled  cities !  I  have,  therefore,  had  to 
limit  my  selections  to  a  few  of  the  best-known  places  and 
leave  the  rest  to  general  articles. 

The  inhabitants  of  the  Flowery  Kingdom  are  almost  less 
known  than  the  country  itself.  Like  everything  else  in 
this  curious  country,  their  character  is  paradoxical  and  hard 
for  the  Westerner  to  comprehend.  Not  comprehending, 
he  is  naturally  lacking  in  sympathy.  In  this  topsy-turvy 
land  one  of  the  obstacles  to  mutual  understanding  is  the  re- 
lation of  man  to  his  ancestors  and  the  spiritual  world.  The 
whole  of  Chinese  life  revolves  around  this.  One  of  the 
authors  quoted  in  this  book  notes  :  "  The  Chinaman  ob- 
viously believes  that  a  man's  soul  is  immortal  and  that  its 
welfare  has  the  very  closest  connection  with  the  welfare  of 
his  descendant.  The  commercial  man  will  tell  you  that  the 
Chinese  are  materialists — people  who  have  no  faith  ;  and 
yet,  with  glorious  inconsistency,  he  will  explain  that  the 


PREFACE  vii 

difficulty  of  using  Chinese  labour  abroad  is  that  even  the 
commonest  coolie  demands  that  his  body  shall  be  repatriated 
and  shall  lie  in  some  place  which  will  not  hinder  his  son 
doing  filial  worship  to  his  spirit." 

Another  stumbling-block  is  the  envelope  of  etiquette  that 
surrounds  everything — etiquette  developed  through  and  by 
centuries  of  practice. 

"  Much  of  the  falsehood  to  which  the  Chinese  as  a 
nation  are  said  to  be  addicted,"  says  Mr.  Holcombe,  "  is  a 
result  of  the  demands  of  etiquette.  A  plain,  frank  c  no  '  is 
the  height  of  discourtesy.  Refusal  or  denial  of  any  sort 
must  be  softened  and  toned  down  into  an  expression  of  re- 
gretted inability.  Unwillingness  to  grant  a  favour  is  never 
shown.  In  place  of  it  there  is  seen  a  chastened  feeling  of 
sorrow  that  unavoidable  but  quite  imaginary  circumstances 
render  it  wholly  impossible.  This  habit  of  repression  and 
misrepresentation  of  feeling  has  given  the  outside  world  the 
idea  that,  as  a  nation,  the  Chinese  are  stolid,  indifferent, 
and  lacking  in  nerves.  Such  is  not  the  case.  They  are 
keenly  sensitive,  proud,  and  passionate.  As  might  be  ex- 
pected, when,  under  a  provocation  too  great  for  endurance, 
they  give  way  to  their  feelings,  the  result,  whether  it  be 
grief  or  anger,  is  as  extreme  and  unreasonable,  from  our 
standpoint,  as  their  ordinary  suppression  of  emotion  is 
absurd  and  unnecessary.  It  is  difficult,  perhaps  unfair,  to 
judge  them  in  this  regard,  since  their  standard  is  absolutely 
different  from  ours.  They  have  covered  themselves  with  a 
lacquer  of  courtesy  and  etiquette  so  thick  and  highly  pol- 


viii  PREFACE 

ished  that  the  real  fibre  of  character  lying  underneath  is 
discovered  only  upon  very  rare  occasions.  Half  the  world 
believes  that  the  lacquer  covers  nothing  valuable,  or  con- 
taining the  finer  qualities  of  manhood." 

One  of  the  most  illuminating  essays  in  this  book  is  Wu 
Ting  Fang's  Civilization  of  China  delivered  before  the 
Universal  Races  Congress  held  in  London  in  1911.  In 
this  we  gain  something  like  a  clear  insight  into  the  social 
and  moral  code  of  the  most  venerable  civilization  in  ex- 
istence. 

The  people  of  the  different  provinces  vary  greatly,  and 
there  is  no  uniform  tongue  to  bind  them  together;  but  now 
that  China  is  awakening  the  Chinese  of  the  Mandarins  is 
being  taught  everywhere,  and  before  long  the  Chinese  peo- 
ple will  speak  one  common  language.  The  interesting 
extract  by  H.  Borel  shows  the  growing  tendency  towards 
the  development  of  national  consciousness.  The  compo- 
sition of  a  ten-year-old  Chinese  boy  regarding  the  needs  of 
China  and  her  future  destiny,  cited  on  page  87,  is  most 
instructive. 

The  eyes  of  the  world  are  upon  China — awakening  more 
and  more  every  day.  China  is,  perhaps,  the  most  fasci- 
nating of  all  countries  to  the  student  of  men,  manners  and 
events.  Lord  Weardale  says  : 

"  In  less  than  twenty  years  we  have  witnessed  the  most 
remarkable  awakening  of  nations  long  regarded  as  sunk  in 
such  depths  of  somnolence  as  to  be  only  interesting  to  the 
Western  world  because  they  presented  a  wide  and  prolific 


PREFACE  ix 

field  for  commercial  rivalries,  often  greedy,  cruel  and 
fraught  with  bloodshed  in  their  prosecution,  but  which  oth- 
erwise were  an  almost  negligible  quantity  in  international 
concerns. 

"  How  great  is  the  change  in  the  lifetime  of  a  single 
generation,  when,  to  select  two  instances  alone,  we  con- 
template the  most  remarkable  rise  of  the  power  of  the  Em- 
pire of  Japan,  the  precursor,  it  would  seem,  of  a  similar 
revival  of  the  activities  and  highly  developed  qualities  of  the 
population  of  the  great  Empire  of  China. 

"  Nearer  and  nearer  we  see  approaching  the  day  when 
the  vast  populations  of  the  East  will  assert  their  claim  to 
meet  on  terms  of  equality  the  nations  of  the  West,  when 
the  free  institutions  and  the  organized  forces  of  the  one 
hemisphere  will  have  their  counterbalance  in  the  other,  when 
their  mental  outlook  and  their  social  aims  will  be  in  prin- 
ciple identical ;  when,  in  short,  the  colour  prejudice  will 
have  vanished  and  the  so-called  coloured  races  shall  no 
longer  merely  meet  in  the  glowing  periods  of  missionary 
exposition,  but,  in  very  fact,  regard  one  another  as  in  truth 
men  and  brothers." 

The  punctilious  courtesy,  (which  includes  the  banishment 
of  all  disagreeable,  offensive,  or  even  awkward  subjects  of 
conversation),  the  generosity,  patience  and  contentment  of 
the  very  poor,  the  respect  of  the  young  for  the  old  and  the 
reverence  of  all  for  the  uncomprehended  world  of  spirits, 
certainly  point  to  a  high  order  of  civilization.  We  may 
note,  in  conclusion,  that  in  the  language  of  flowers  and 


x  PREFACE 

emblems  the  peony,  bamboo  and  lotus,  appearing  so  fre- 
quently in  art  and  decoration,  stand  respectively  for 
"  wealth,"  "  peace  "  and  "  the  perfect  gentleman," — all 
three  of  which  it  is  a  Mandarin's  ambition  to  attain. 

E.  S. 
New  Tork,  September,  1912. 


CONTENTS 

PART  I 
THE  COUNTRY  AND  ITS  PEOPLE 

PAGE 

THE  COUNTRY  AND  ITS  PEOPLE  i 

Sir  Henry  Arthur  Blake 

CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE 8 

Alexis  Krausse 

HISTORY       ........      26 

Edward  Harper  Parker 

DR.  SUN  YAT  SEN  AND  THE  CHINESE  REVOLUTION  .       50 
7.  Ellis  Barker 

THE  CIVILIZATION  OF  CHINA          ....       74 
Wu  Ting-Fang 

THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA  .....       82 
H.  Bore! 

WHAT  HAS  AWAKENED  CHINA       ....       91 
Lord  William  Gascoyne-Cecil 

PART  II 

DESCRIPTIONS 

THE  CITIES  OF  CHINA 101 

Lord  William  Gascoyne-Cecil 

CHINESE  STREETS  .......     108 

John  Henry  Gray 

PEKING 118 

Pierre  Leroy-Beaulieu 

THE  TEMPLE  OF  HEAVEN       .         .         .         .         .     126 
T.  Hodgson  Liddell 
xi 


xii  CONTENTS 

THE  SUMMER  PALACE 133 

T.  Hodgson  Liddell 

THE  MING  TOMBS  AND  GREAT  WALL        .     .         .     140 
Pierre  Leroy-Beaulieu 

NANKING  AND  THE  MING  TOMB     ....     146 
J.  de  J. 

SHANGHAI 153 

T.  Hodgson  Liddell 

NlNGPO 162 

Arthur  Evans  Moule 

HONGKONG 169 

T.  Hodgson  Liddell 

CANTON X76 

T.  Hodgson  Liddell 

CH'ENG-TU l83 

R.  F.  Johnston 

MOUNT  OMEI l89 

R.  F.  Johnston 


PART  III 

MANNERS  AND  CUSTOMS 

THE  LANGUAGE *97 

Chester  Holcombe 

THE  LITERARY  AND  MANDARIN  CLASS  .         .        •     212 

Pierre  Leroy-Beauheu 

HONOURARY  DISTINCTIONS 221 

Henry  Charles  Sirr 

RELIGIONS  IN  CHINA      .         .         .         .         •         •     22& 
Lord  William  Gascoyne-Cecil 

ANCESTOR  WORSHIP 23^ 

R.  S.'Gundry 


CONTENTS  xiii 

ETIQUETTE  AND  CEREMONY 245 

Chester  Holcombe 

WOMEN  AND  MARRIAGE         .....     257 
Henry  Charles  Sirr 

THE  POOR  IN  CHINA 267 

Chester  Holcombe 

DRESS 275 

Henry  Charles  Sirr 

AMUSEMENTS 284 

J.  Dyer  Ball 

FESTIVALS 290 

Sir  Henry  Arthur  Blake 

FEAST  OF  LANTERNS       ......     296 

John  Henry  Gray 

HOTELS,  INNS  AND  RESTAURANTS  ....     300 
John  Henry  Gray 

A  MANDARIN'S  DINNER  PARTY       ....     308 
Henry  Charles  Sirr 

FLOWERS  AND  GARDENS 314 

J.  Dyer  Ball 

AGRICULTURE  AND  FISHING    .....     320 
Sir  Henry  Arthur  Blake 

BOATS 326 

John  Henry  Gray 

PART  IV 

ART 

THE  DRAGON  AND  OTHER  EMBLEMS      .        .         .     336 
J.  Dyer  Ball 

ARCHITECTURE      .......     342 

Robert  K.  Douglas 


xiv  CONTENTS 

PAGODAS 352 

John  Henry  Gray 

PORCELAIN  AND  POTTERY       .         .         .         .         .361 
J.  Dyer  Ball 

COINS  AND  ART 376 

Robert  K.  Douglas 

INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 383 

Henry  Charles  Sirr 


ILLUSTRATIONS 

The  Great  Wall           .         .         .         .  .  Frontispiece 
Monumental  Arch,  near  Soo-Chow        .   Facing  page         2 

Chinese  Doorway,  Canton  "  "            8 

Taou-Kwang  Reviewing  Guards  at  Pal- 
ace, Peking "  "          26 

Village  on  Soo-Chow  Creek           .         ,  "  "         50 

Ancient  Tomb  with  Stone  Figures          .  "  "         74 

Koolangsen,  Amoy        .          .         .  "  "         82 

Emperor's  Summer  Palace,  near  Peking  "  "         92 
Inn- Yard,  Peking          ....""       102 

Palace  near  Hong  Kong        .         .  "  "       108 

A  Peking  Cab "  "       118 

Temple  of  Heaven,  Peking  .         .  "  "126 

Grand  Pailau,  Summer  Palace,  Peking    .  "  "       134 

Avenue  Leading  to  Ming  Tombs,  Peking  "  "       140 

Avenue  Leading  to  Ming  Tombs,  Nan- 
king       «  "       146 

Shanghai  from  the  Harbour  .         .  "  "154 

Chinese  Merchants       .         .         .         .  u  "       162 

Hong  Kong  and  Harbour      .         .  "  "170 

Canton  Showing  Whampoa  and  Floating 

Dwellings "  "176 

Group  of  Cantonese      .         .          .  "  "178 

Szechwan  Highway      .         .         .  "  "184 

Summit  of  Mount  Omei        .         .  **  "       190 


xvi  ILLUSTRATIONS 

Chinese  Mandarin         ....  Facing  page  212 

Confucian  Temple        ....""  228 

Chinese  Funeral  Procession  .         .         .       "         "  238 

Chinese  Officials           ....""  246 

Bride  Receiving  Presents                                 "         "  258 

Chinese  Itinerant  Merchants          .                "         "  268 

Chinese  Ladies "         "  276 

Kite-Flying "         "284 

Festival  of  Dragon-Boat        .         .                "         "  290 

Inn  near  Peking "         "  300 

Dinner-Party  at  a  Mandarin's  House      .       "         "  308 
Tea-Gardens,  Soo-Chow       .         .         .      "         "314 

Ground  the  Emperor  Ploughs         .                "         "  320 

Hong  Kong  Harbour    ....""  326 

Pagoda  near  Shanghai   ....""  342 

The  Porcelain  Pagoda,  Nanking    .         .       "         "  358 

Old  Tea  House,  Shanghai                               "         "  362 

Feeding  Silkworms       ....""  384 


THE  COUNTRY  AND  ITS  PEOPLE 

SIR  HENRT  ARTHUR  BLAKE 

kHE  continuous  territory  in  Asia  over  which  China 
rules  or  exercises  a  suzerainty  is  over  4,200,000 
square  miles,  but  China  Proper,  excluding  Man- 
churia, Mongolia,  Tibet  and  Turkestan,  consists  of  eight- 
een provinces,  covering  an  area  of  1,530,000  square  miles, 
with  a  population  of  about  410,000,000,  or  about  twelve 
and  a  half  times  the  area  of  the  United  Kingdom,  and  ten 
times  its  population. 

This  area  is  bounded  on  the  west  by  southern  spurs  from 
the  giant  mountain  regions  of  Eastern  Tibet,  that  stretch 
their  long  arms  in  parallel  ranges  through  Burma  and 
Western  Yunnan,  and  whose  snow-clad  crests  send  forth 
the  great  rivers  Salween  and  Mekong  to  the  south,  the 
Yangtze  and  Yellow  Rivers  to  the  east,  to  fertilize  the 
most  productive  regions  on  the  surface  of  the  globe. 

It  is  this  conformation  that  has  so  far  presented  an  insur- 
mountable barrier  to  the  construction  of  a  railway  from 
Bhamo  in  Burmese  territory  to  the  high  plateau  of  Yunnan, 
from  whence  the  province  of  Szechwan,  richest  of  all  the 
eighteen  provinces  in  agricultural  and  mineral  wealth,  could 
be  reached.  Some  day  the  coal,  iron,  gold,  oil  and  salt  of 
Szechwan,  will  be  exploited,  and  future  generations  may 


2  CHINA 

find  in  the  millionaires  of  Szechwan  Chinese  speculators  as 
able  and  far-seeing  as  the  financial  magnates  who  now 
practically  control  the  destinies  of  millions  in  the  Western 
world. 

The  portion  south  of  the  Yangtze  is  hilly  rather  than 
mountainous,  and  the  eastern  portion  north  of  that  great 
river  is  a  vast  plain  of  rich  soil,  through  which  the  Yellow 
River,  which  from  its  periodical  inundations  is  called 
China's  Sorrow,  flows  for  over  five  hundred  miles. 

In  a  country  so  vast,  internal  means  of  communication 
are  of  the  first  importance,  and  here  China  enjoys  natural 
facilities  unequalled  by  any  area  of  similar  extent.  Three 
great  rivers  flow  eastward  and  southward — the  Hoang-ho, 
or  Yellow  River,  in  the  north,  the  Yangtze  in  the  centre, 
and  the  Pearl  River,  of  which  the  West  River  is  the 
largest  branch,  in  the  south.  The  Yangtze  alone  with  its 
affluents  is  calculated  to  afford  no  less  than  36,000  miles 
of  waterways.  The  river  population  of  China  comprises 
many  millions,  whose  varied  occupations  present  some  of 
the  most  interesting  aspects  of  Chinese  life. 

The  population  of  China  is  composed  of  different  tribes 
or  clans,  whose  records  date  back  to  the  dynasty  of  Fuh-hi, 
2800  B.  c.  Sometimes  divided  in  separate  kingdoms,  some- 
times united  by  waves  of  conquest,  the  northern  portion 
was  welded  into  one  empire  by  the  conqueror  Ghengis 
Khan  in  A.  D.  1234,  and  seventy  years  later  the  southern 
portion  was  added  by  his  son,  Kublai  Khan,  who  overthrew 
the  Sung  dynasty.  It  was  during  his  reign  that  China  was 


THE  COUNTRY  AND  ITS  PEOPLE        3 

visited  by  Marco  Polo,  from  the  records  of  whose  travels 
we  find  that  even  at  that  time  the  financial  system  of  the 
Far  East  was  so  advanced  that  paper  money  was  used  by 
the  Chinese,  while  in  the  city  of  Cambaluc — the  Peking  of 
to-day — Christian,  Saracen,  and  Chinese  astrologers  con- 
sulted an  astrolable  to  forecast  the  nature  of  the  weather, 
thus  anticipating  the  meteorological  bureaux  of  to-day. 

There  are,  however,  still  districts  in  the  southern  portion 
of  China  where  the  aboriginal  inhabitants  have  never  ac- 
cepted the  position  of  complete  incorporation  with  the 
Chinese  neighbours.  In  the  mountain  district,  between 
the  provinces  of  Kwangtung  and  Hunan,  a  tribe  exists 
known  as  the  Yu  people,  in  whose  territory  no  Chinese 
officials  are  permitted  to  reside,  nor  do  they  allow  strangers 
to  enter  their  towns,  which  are  built  on  crags  difficult  of 
access  and  capable  of  offering  a  stubborn  resistance  to 
attack.  Their  chief  occupation  is  forestry,  the  timber 
being  cut  during  the  winter  and  floated  down  the  moun- 
tain streams  when  in  flood.  Their  customs  are  peculiar. 
Among  them  is  the  vendetta,  which  is  practiced  by  the  Yu 
alone  of  all  the  people  in  the  Far  East.  But  no  woman  is 
ever  injured ;  and  even  during  the  fiercest  fighting  the 
women  can  continue  their  work  in  the  fields  with  safety. 
Their  original  home  was  in  Yunnan  and  the  western  part 
of  Kwangsi,  from  whence  they  were  driven  out  by  the 
Chinese  in  the  time  of  the  Sung  dynasty.  The  Yu,  Lolos, 
Miao-tse,  Sy-fans,  etc.  (all  Chinese  names  expressive  of 
contempt,  like  our  "  barbarians  "  ),  are  stated  by  Ma-tonan- 


4  CHINA 

lin  and  other  Chinese  historians  to  have  been  found  in- 
habiting the  country  when,  six  thousand  years  ago,  it  was 
occupied  by  the  ancestors  of  the  Chinese,  who  came  from 
the  northwest.  The  savage  inhabitants  were  gradually 
driven  into  the  hills  where  their  descendants  are  still  found. 
Their  traditions  point  to  their  having  been  cannibals. 
Intermarriage  with  the  Chinese  is  very  rare,  the  Chinese 
regarding  such  a  union  as  a  mesalliance,  and  the  aboriginal 
peoples  as  a  cowardly  desertion  to  the  enemy.  The  em- 
broideries worked  by  the  women  are  different  from  those 
of  the  Chinese  and,  I  am  informed,  more  resemble  the  em- 
broideries now  worked  at  Bethlehem.  They  are  worked 
on  dark  cloth  in  red,  or  sometimes  red  and  yellow. 

After  the  time  of  Kublai  Khan,  succeeding  centuries 
found  the  various  divisions  of  the  Chinese  again  disunited 
in  accordance  with  a  very  old  Chinese  proverb  frequently 
heard  at  the  present  day  :  "  Long  united  we  divide  :  long 
divided  we  unite  " ;  but  the  final  welding  took  place  under 
Shun-chi,  who  established  the  Tsing  dynasty  in  1644,  and 
imposed  upon  all  Chinese  people,  as  a  permanent  and 
evident  mark  of  subjection,  the  shaving  of  the  front  portion 
of  the  head  and  braiding  of  the  back  hair  into  a  queue  after 
the  Tartar  fashion— an  order  at  first  resented  bitterly,  but 
afterwards  acquiesced  in  as  an  old  custom.  To  this  day 
the  removal  of  the  queue  and  allowing  the  hair  to  grow  on 
the  front  portion  of  the  head  is  regarded  as  a  casting  off  of 
allegiance  to  .the  dynasty.  In  the  Taiping  rebellion  that 
raged  in  the  southern  provinces  from  1850  to  1867,  and 


THE  COUNTRY  AND  ITS  PEOPLE        5 

which  down  to  its  suppression  by  Gordon  and  Li  Hung 
Chang  is  computed  to  have  cost  the  lives  of  twenty-two 
and  a  half  millions  of  people,  the  removal  of  the  queue 
and  allowing  the  hair  to  grow  freely  was  the  symbol  adopted 
by  the  rebels. 

To  secure  the  empire  against  future  risings,  the  Manchu 
conquerors  placed  Tartar  garrisons  in  every  great  city, 
where  separate  quarters  were  allotted  to  them,  and  for  two 
hundred  and  sixty  years  these  so-called  Tartar  soldiers  and 
their  families  have  been  supported  with  doles  of  rice. 
They  were  not  allowed  to  trade,  nor  to  intermarry  with  the 
Chinese.  The  consequence  was  inevitable.  They  have 
become  an  idle  population  in  whom  the  qualities  of  the  old 
virile  Manchus  have  deteriorated,  and  supply  a  large  pro- 
portion of  the  elements  of  disorder  and  violence.  Of  late, 
the  prohibition  against  entering  into  business  and  inter- 
marrying with  the  Chinese  has  been  removed,  and  they  will 
ultimately  be  absorbed  into  the  general  population. 

From  the  point  of  view  of  a  trained  soldier  these  Tartar 
"  troops  "  were  no  more  than  armed  rabble,  with  the  most 
primitive  ideas  of  military  movements;  but  in  the  north  the 
exigencies  of  the  situation  have  compelled  the  adoption  of 
Western  drill,  adding  immensely  to  the  efficiency  but  sadly 
diminishing  the  picturesqueness  of  the  armies — for  there  is 
no  homogeneous  territorial  army,  each  province  supplying 
its  own  independent  force,  the  goodness  or  badness  of  which 
depends  upon  the  energy  and  ability  of  the  viceroy. 

The   pay  of  a   Chinese   soldier  is  ostensibly   about  six 


6  CHINA 

dollars  a  month,  which  would  be  quite  sufficient  for  his 
support  were  it  not  reduced  to  about  half  that  amount  by 
the  squeezes  of  the  officers  and  non-commissioned  officers 
through  whose  hands  it  passes.  He  receives  also  one  hun- 
dred pounds  of  rice,  which  is  not  always  palatable,  the 
weight  being  made  up  by  an  admixture  of  sand  and  mud  to 
replace  the  "  squeeze  "  by  the  various  hands  through  which 
the  rice  tribute  has  passed. 

While  under  arms  he  is  clothed  in  a  short  Chinese  jacket 
of  scarlet,  blue,  or  black,  on  the  front  and  back  of  which 
are  the  name  and  symbol  of  his  regiment.  The  sleeves  are 
wide  and  the  arms  have  free  play.  The  shape  of  the  hat 
varies  in  every  corps,  the  small  round  Chinese  hat  being 
sometimes  worn,  or  a  peakless  cap,  while  some  regiments 
wear  immense  straw  hats,  which  hang  on  the  back  except 
when  the  sun  is  unduly  hot.  The  trousers  are  dark  blue 
of  the  usual  Chinese  pattern,  tied  round  the  ankles.  The 
costume  is  not  unsoldierlike,  and  when  in  mass  the 
effect  is  strikingly  picturesque  j  but  it  must  not  be 
inferred  that  all  the  men  on  a  large  parade  are  drilled 
soldiers.  An  order  to  the  officer  commanding  to  parade 
his  corps  for  inspection  not  seldom  interferes  seriously 
with  the  labour  force  of  the  day.  He  draws  the  daily 
pay  of,  say,  two  thousand  men,  but  his  average  muster 
may  not  exceed  three  hundred.  This  is  a  kind  of 
gambling  with  Fortune  at  which  China  is  disposed  to  wink 
as  being  merely  a  somewhat  undue  extension  of  the  prin- 
ciple of  squeeze  that  is  the  warp  and  woof  of  every  Chinese 


THE  COUNTRY  AND  ITS  PEOPLE        7 

employee,  public  or  private.  But  he  must  not  be  found 
out ;  therefore  seventeen  hundred  coolies  are  collected  by 
hook  or  crook,  and  duly  attired  in  uniform,  possibly  being 
shown  how  to  handle  their  rifles  at  the  salute.  The  muster 
over,  the  coolies  return  to  their  work,  and  the  arms  and 
uniform  are  replaced  in  store  until  the  next  occasion. 

The  officers  are  chosen  from  the  better  classes,  except 
when  a  more  than  ferocious  robber  is  captured,  when 
sometimes  his  supposed  bravery  is  utilized  by  giving  him 
an  army  command.  The  young  officers  undergo  some  kind 
of  elementary  training.  That  Chinese  troops  are  not 
wanting  in  bravery  has  been  proved  ;  and  if  properly  led  a 
Chinese  drilled  army  of  to-day  might  prove  as  formidable 
as  were  the  hosts  of  Ghengis  Khan,  when  in  the  Thirteenth 
Century  they  swept  over  Western  Asia  and  into  Europe  as 
far  as  Budapest. 

It  has  been  stated  that  the  empire  has  been  welded  to- 
gether by  its  conquerors,  but  perhaps  it  would  be  more 
correct  to  say  that  it  coheres  by  the  almost  universal  ac- 
ceptance of  the  ethics  of  Confucius,  whose  wise  precepts — 
delivered  five  hundred  years  before  the  birth  of  Christ — 
inculcated  all  the  cardinal  virtues  and  included  love  and 
respect  for  parents  ;  respect  for  the  Prince ;  respect  for  and 
obedience  to  superiors ;  respect  for  age  and  courteous  man- 
ners towards  all.  He  held  that  at  their  birth  all  men  were 
by  nature  radically  good,  but  "  as  gems  unwrought  serve 
no  useful  end,  so  men  untaught  will  never  know  what  right 
conduct  is." 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE 

ALEXIS  KRAUSSE 

CHINA  with  its  dependencies  occupies  nearly  a 
third  of  the  Asiatic  Continent.  Nominally  one 
vast  kingdom,  the  territories  comprised  have  the 
cohesion  of  neither  race,  nor  constitution,  nor  religion. 
The  people  of  Manchuria  are  the  opposites  of  those  of 
Tibet;  nor  is  there  aught  in  common  between  the  men  of 
Hunan  and  those  of  Kansu.  In  accordance  with  the 
paradoxical  principle  which  underlies  most  things  Chinese, 
the  Empire  is  itself  a  dependency  of  a  subject  state,  since 
the  Emperor  is  a  descendant  of  the  Manchu  insurgents 
who  conquered  the  eighteen  provinces  of  China  proper  in 
1644.  To  give  a  general  idea,  the  land  may  be  spoken  of 
as  a  vast  slope  stretching  from  the  table-lands  of  Tibet  and 
the  Koko  Nor  to  the  Pacific  Ocean.  In  the  territory  com- 
prised in  this  far  expanse,  which  covers  an  area  of  4,218,401 
square  miles,  there  is  to  be  found  every  description  of 
physical  feature  and  climate,  from  the  snow-clad  mountains 
of  Yunnan  to  the  alluvial  plains  of  the  maritime  provinces, 
and  from  the  tropical  region  of  Kwangtung  to  the  temperate 
margin  of  the  Gulf  of  Pechili. 

The  most  noteworthy  characteristic  of  China  proper  is 
the   remarkable   system  of  rivers,  which  provides  a  ready 


r 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE  9 

means  of  communication  in  nearly  every  direction ;  and  it 
is  a  curious  instance  of  the  want  of  logic  inherent  in  the 
Chinese  mind  that  these  natural  highways  are  so  rarely 
utilized  as  boundaries  of  the  different  districts  into  which 
the  country  is  divided. 

The  eighteen  provinces  comprised  in  the  kingdom  of 
China,  known  also  as  the  "Flowery  Land"  and  the  "Middle 
State,"  may  be  conveniently  divided  into  four  divisions. 
On  the  north  are  Kansu,  Shensi,  Shansi  and  Chili.  In- 
land, forming  central  China,  are  Sechuan,  Hupeh,  Honan, 
Anwei,  Kweichau,  Hunan  and  Kiangsi.  On  the  southern 
border  are  Yunnan  and  Kwangsi,  and  on  the  east  are  the 
maritime  provinces  Shantung,  Kiangsu,  Chekiang,  Fukien 
and  Kwangtung.  The  smallest  of  these,  Fukien,  is  rathel 
bigger  than  Ireland  ;  and  the  most  extensive,  Sechuan,  is 
nearly  half  as  large  again  as  the  British  Isles.  In  its  phys- 
ical aspect,  China  proper  may  be  divided  into  two  spheres. 
On  the  north  and  east  sides  the  land  is  generally  level  and 
productive.  On  the  west  and  south  it  is  much  cut  up  by 
mountain  ranges,  some  of  them  of  great  height,  bare  and 
precipitous.  The  mountainous  districts  are  rich  in  mineral 
deposits,  and  teem  with  natural  produce,  while  the  low- 
lying  lands  comprise  a  soil  so  fertile  as  to  produce  in  many 
districts  three  crops  a  year. 

The  rivers  of  China  are  of  the  utmost  importance  to  the 
Empire,  inasmuch  as  they  afford  what  is  practically  the 
only  means  of  communication  between  the  different 
territories.  Roads  are  few  and  bad,  the  highway  consist- 


io  CHINA 

ing,  in  most  instances,  of  the  merest  track  and  in  the 
alluvial  lands  and  those  districts  in  which  the  loess  beds 
are  situated,  the  paths  are  often  knee-deep  in  mud.  The 
great  rivers,  however,  with  their  numerous  tributaries  and 
canals,  traverse  the  Empire  in  every  direction,  and  afford  a 
cheap  and  ready  means  of  transport,  which  has  rendered 
the  vast  trade  of  the  country  possible.  The  rivers  of 
China  are  known  by  a  variety  of  names  each  one  receiving 
various  appellations  in  different  portions  of  their  course. 
The  word  river  is  represented  by  two  distinct  terms  :  those 
in  the  north  being  called  Ho,  and  those  in  the  south  Kiang 
or  Chiang.  Thus  Hoang  Ho  signifies  Hoang  River,  and 
the  Yangtze  Kiang,  Yangtze  River,  facts  which  serve  to 
exhibit  the  ignorance  of  persons  who  refer  to  the  Yangtze 
Kiang  River,  and  thus  show  that  they  are  unaware  of  the 
signification  of  the  words  they  use. 

The  most  important  of  the  rivers  of  China  are  the 
Yangtze,  the  Hoang,  the  Si,  the  Pei  and  the  Min.  The 
Yangtze  Kiang  ranks  third  in  size  among  the  rivers  of  the 
world.  It  rises  in  the  table-land  of  Tibet,  and,  after  a 
tortuous  course,  enters  China  near  Batang,  whence  it 
traverses  the  provinces  of  Sechuan,  Yunnan,  Hupeh, 
Anwei  and  Kiangsu.  Its  total  course  covers  more  than 
4,000  miles,  and  it  is  navigable  by  large  vessels  for  more 
than  1,000  miles  from  its  estuary.  The  Yangtze  Kiang 
receives  a  number  of  tributaries  of  which  the  Kia-ling  and 
Han  are  the  most  important.  It  also  affords  communica- 
tion with  two  lakes  of  considerable  extent.  The  most 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE  n 

remarkable  feature  in  connection  with  the  Yangtze  is  the 
extraordinary  variation  in  its  level,  which  alternates  as  much 
as  100  feet  in  the  higher  reaches,  where  the  banks  narrow 
and  confine  the  stream  within  a  series  of  remarkable  gorges 
and  fifty  feet  at  Hankow,  where  the  river  is  more  than  a 
mile  wide.  These  phenomena  are  due  to  the  summer 
melting  of  the  snows  on  the  Tibetan  plateau,  where  the 
river  takes  its  rise  at  a  height  of  more  than  15,000  feet,  and 
the  water  rushes  down  in  a  flood,  which  at  times  submerges 
the  country  over  a  breadth  of  twenty  miles.  The  same 
extremes  are  to  be  noted  in  the  other  rivers  which  rise  on 
the  great  table-land,  known  as  the  "  roof  of  the  world," 
especially  in  the  case  of  the  Hoang  Ho  or  Yellow  River, 
which  has  long  since  earned  for  itself  the  title  of  "  China's 
Sorrow."  This  river,  rising  in  close  proximity  to  the 
Yangtze,  takes  a  more  northerly  course,  and  after  skirting 
the  Mongolian  plateau,  passes  through  the  great  plain  of 
China  and  enters  the  sea  in  the  Gulf  of  Pechili.  It  has  a 
course  of  nearly  3,000  miles,  and  is  quite  unnavigable,  ex- 
cept over  a  portion  of  its  lower  reaches,  and,  even  here, 
vessels  are  hindered  from  ascending  the  stream  by  shoals 
and  other  difficulties.  This  river  is  peculiarly  subject  to 
floods,  which  submerge  whole  provinces,  and  it  has  more 
than  once  entirely  changed  its  course  which  is  to-day  some 
300  miles  north  of  the  bed  it  occupied  in  1854.  The  last 
occasion  in  which  the  Hoang  Ho  escaped  its  banks  was  in 
1887,  when,  owing  to  an  embankment  giving  way,  whole 
towns  and  villages  were  destroyed,  hundreds  of  thousands 


12  CHINA 

of  people  were  drowned  and  several  millions  rendered 
destitute.  A  great  plain,  half  as  large  as  Scotland  and 
densely  populated,  was  suddenly,  without  warning,  turned 
into  a  raging  sea.  The  Governor  of  Honan,  the  province 
most  affected,  stated,  in  his  official  announcement  of  the 
visitation :  vt  Nearly  all  the  people  have  been  drowned  in 
the  districts  reached  by  the  water,"  and  the  Peking  corre- 
spondent of  The  Times  placed  the  number  drowned  at  not 
less  than  a  million.  The  final  estimate  issued  with  official 
sanction,  and  generally  accepted,  gives  1,600,000  as  the 
number  of  people  swept  away ;  5,000,000  as  being  rendered 
destitute. 

The  Si  Kiang,  or  West  River,  which  rises  in  Yunnan, 
is  navigable  for  big  steamers  over  a  course  of  350  miles 
above  Canton,  and  is  rapidly  becoming  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant trade  routes  in  South  China.  The  Pei  Ho,  known 
also  as  the  Peking  River,  is  navigable  as  far  as  Tung 
Chow,  140  miles  from  the  sea,  and  is  the  main  route  be- 
tween the  northern  capital  and  the  rest  of  the  Empire. 
The  Min  Kiang  is  a  much  smaller  river  than  the  above 
named,  but  ranks  high  as  a  trade  route,  being  the  approach 
to  the  important  city  of  Fuchow,  and  the  centre  of  the 
southern  tea  trade  of  China.  In  addition  to  these  water- 
ways, there  are  two  others,  which,  like  the  Hoang  and 
Yangtze,  rise  in  Tibet,  and  flow  through  a  portion  of 
Southwestern  China.  They  are  the  Salween  and  the 
Mekong.  Neither  is  navigable  within  the  Chinese  fron- 
tier. The  former,  after  crossing  the  Chinese  frontier  at 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE  13 

Kunton,  flows  through  Burma,  while  the  latter  passes  by 
Kiang  Hung  into  Siam,  and  serves  as  the  boundary  be- 
tween that  country  and  French  Indo-China,  until  it  reaches 
Cambodia  and  loses  itself  in  the  China  Sea. 

The  most  important  adjunct  to  the  rivers  named  was  the 
Grand  Canal,  an  undertaking  completed  more  than  six 
hundred  years  ago  by  the  Emperor  Chitsou,  and  intended 
to  place  Peking  in  communication  with  Hangchow  and 
Canton.  This  undertaking,  which,  in  daring,  ranks  second 
only  to  the  Great  Wall,  runs  its  course  from  Tientsin  to 
Chinkiang  and  thence  to  Hangchow,  crossing  on  its  way 
both  the  Hoang  Ho  and  the  Yangtze  Kiang.  The  total 
distance  traversed  is  rather  over  600  miles.  This  wonder- 
ful engineering  feat  has,  of  late  years,  been  suffered  to  fall 
into  a  very  bad  state  of  repair,  and,  partly  owing  to  the 
change  in  the  course  of  the  Yellow  River,  partly  on  ac- 
count of  the  improvement  effected  in  steam  communication 
by  sea,  the  canal  is  used  only  by  small  junks,  which  are, 
with  infinite  labour,  and  in  the  face  of  many  difficulties, 
propelled  or  hauled  along  its  course. 

Closely  allied  to  the  question  of  internal  waterways  is 
that  of  seaports,  and  in  this  respect  the  coasts  of  China  are 
exceptionally  well  equipped.  The  whole  seaboard  from 
north^to  south  is  indented  by  a  succession  of  deep  bays  and 
landlocked  harbours,  unsurpassed  in  the  security  they  afford 
to  shipping,  and  the  facilities  they  provide  for  the  loading  and 
unloading  of  merchandise.  Commencing  in  the  Liao-tong 
peninsula,  the  southernmost  province  of  Manchuria,  we 


i4  CHINA 

have  the  remarkable  harbours  of  Talienwan  and  Port 
Arthur.  Just  round  the  southernmost  point  of  this  prom- 
ontory, known  from  its  shape  as  the  "  Regent's  Sword," 
is  the  shelter  afforded  by  Port  Adams  and  Society  Bay. 
Across  the  gulf,  one  hundred  miles  away,  is  the  roadstead 
of  Chifu,  and  the  bay  of  Wei  Hai  Wei,  while  beyond  the 
projecting  cape  of  Shantung  are  the  enclosed  harbours  of 
Tingtze  and  Kiao  Chou.  Passing  the  estuary  of  the 
Yang-tze,  and  the  Woosung  River,  with  its  port  of  Shang- 
hai, we  reach  Nimrod  Sound,  the  approach  to  Ningpo 
hard  by  San  moon  Bay,  which  is  in  itself  a  harbour  capable 
of  sheltering  the  navies  of  the  world.  From  this  point  to 
the  southern  border  of  the  Empire  the  coast  line  teems  with 
creeks  and  bays  of  the  first  class.  Bullock  Harbour,  Nam- 
kuan  Harbour,  the  Samsah  inlet,  and  the  entrance  to  the 
Min  River,  are  all  especially  favoured ;  and  the  harbours 
of  Hinghua,  Amoy,  Tung  San,  Swatow,  Mirs-bay,  Bocca 
Tigris,  Sui-tung  and  Pakhoi  are  among  the  finest  shelters 
for  shipping  in  the  world. 

The  roads  of  China  are,  as  already  stated,  the  worst  in 
existence.  When  paved,  they  consist  of  blocks  of  stone 
imbedded  loosely  in  the  surface  of  the  ground.  The  stones 
are  frequently  abstracted  by  the  people  for  their  own  use, 
and  in  the  hilly  districts  the  tracks  are  utterly  neglected,  and 
never,  under  any  circumstances,  repaired.  There  are  in 
different  directions  certain  well-known  caravan  routes, 
which  are  largely  patronized  by  traders,  and,  in  a  sense, 
may  be  regarded  as  public  highways.  Among  the  most 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE  15 

important  of  these  is  the  great  caravan  route  from  Peking 
across  the  Gobi  Desert  to  Urga  and  Kiakhta.  There  are 
also  tracks  from  Peking  to  Shan  Hai  Kuan  on  the  Manchu- 
rian  frontier;  to  Paoting  and  the  rich  Shansi  province; 
and  the  central  Asian  caravan  route  via  Sigan  in  the  great 
loess  '  country.  Apart  from  these  the  trade  of  China  is, 
with  few  exceptions,  conducted  by  means  of  the  water- 
ways. 

The  most  important  of  the  dependencies  of  the  Chinese 
Empire  is  Manchuria,  a  country  about  three  times  the  size 
of  Great  Britain,  and  containing  a  population  estimated  at 
twenty-two  millions.  The  people  are  mostly  Chinese,  the 
Manchus,  who  entered  China  in  the  Seventeenth  Century, 
having  become  absorbed  in  the  race  they  conquered,  while 
the  country  they  formerly  owned  has  become  repopulated 
by  Chinese  immigrants,  with  a  sprinkling  of  Mongols  and 
Koreans.  The  country  is  extremely  mountainous  except 
on  the  northwest,  where  the  ranges  of  hills  give  way  to  a 
series  of  plains  which  merge  into  the  Mongolian  desert. 
It  is  Covered  in  many  parts  with  dense  forests  and  cut  up 
by  a  large  number  of  fine  rivers,  mostly  connected  with  the 
Amur,  which  separates  the  northern  provinces  of  Manchuria 
from  Siberia. 

Mongolia,  a  vast  territory,  which  comprises  one  and  a 
quarter  million  square  miles  of  territory,  mostly  desert,  on 

1  The  loess  is  a  form  of  tertiary  deposit,  in  appearance  a  brown,  porous 
earth,  easily  pulverized,  which  covers  the  ground  to  an  immense  depth  in 
the  northwest  of  China.  This  earth  possesses  a  fertility  which  is  prac- 
tically inexhaustible. 


16  CHINA 

the  northern  borders  of  China  proper,  is  an  unproductive 
region,  peopled  by  about  two  million  nomads,  of  indolent 
habits  and  low  intelligence. 

Tibet,  the  most  mountainous  country  in  the  world,  with 
an  average  altitude  of  fifteen  thousand  feet,  comprises 
nearly  a  million  square  miles  of  hill  and  valley  interspersed 
with  table-lands,  which  are  mostly  covered  with  snow.  Its 
population  is  estimated  at  six  millions,  among  whom  are 
nearly  one  hundred  thousand  lamas,  or  priests,  who  are 
supported  by  the  Government.  Tibet  is  the  head-centre 
of  Buddhism,  and  the  Dalai-lama,1  who  resides  at  Lhassa, 
is  the  high  priest  of  the  cult.  Besides  the  mountains,  the 
most  notable  feature  of  Tibet  is  the  large  number  of  im- 
portant rivers  which  rise  within  its  borders.  Among  the 
most  notable  of  these  are  the  Indus,  Sutlej  and  Brahma- 
pootra on  the  west,  and  the  Yangtze,  Salween  and 
Mekong  on  the  east.  Though  the  country  is  nominally 
ruled  by  the  Emperor  of  China,  it  is  questionable  whether 
the  Peking  Government  exercises  more  than  a  nominal 
sway  over  Tibet,  which  has  only  admitted  the  suzerainty 
of  the  Chinese  since  1648.  Intercourse  with  the  eighteen 
provinces  is  maintained  by  caravans,  the  route  between 
Lhassa  and  Peking  being  by  Sigan,  Lanchau  and  Sining, 
and  the  journey  occupies  four  months.  Tibet  is  probably 
the  least  known  country  in  the  world. 

Chinese   Turkestan,   a  large   and  little-known  territory, 

1  The  Dalai-lama  was  driven  out  of  Tibet  in  1910  and  deposed  by 
imperial  decree. 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE  17 

situated  on  the  extreme  west  of  the  Chinese  Empire,  and 
wedged  between  Mongolia  and  Tibet,  consists  largely  of 
desert.  Owing  to  the  great  distance  which  separates  the 
dependency  from  Peking,  communication  is  slow  and  the 
governmental  influence  weak. 

Jungaria,  the  last  and  smallest  of  the  outlying  Chinese 
provinces,  is  practically  an  appanage  of  Turkestan,  which 
it  closely  resembles.  It  comprises  the  district  of  Hi,  or 
Kuldja,  so  long  a  bone  of  contention  with  Russia,  and  was 
the  scene  of  the  Mohammedan  rising  of  1871.  It  covers 
an  area  of  less  than  150,000  square  miles,  with  a  popula- 
tion of  approximately  half  a  million. 

The  bonds  by  which  these  dependencies  are  united  to 
China  proper  are  of  the  slightest.  They  are  the  last  of  a 
number  of  States  which  at  one  time  acknowledged  the 
suzerainty  of  the  Chinese  throne,  but  to-day  have  become 
the  vassals  of  other  powers.  The  modern  history  of  China 
is  indeed  but  a  record  of  the  loss  of  empire.  On  every  side 
the  Celestial  Kingdom  has  been  mulcted  in  territory ;  and  in 
addition  to  being  bereft  of  regions  which  were  once  her  own 
and  which  rendered  tributes  to  her  treasury,  she  finds  herself 
surrounded  by  Western  powers  exerting  an  unwelcome  but 
increasing  influence  over  the  government  of  what  remains. 

As  might  be  expected  in  the  case  of  a  country  so  ill 
provided  with  roads  as  is  China,  the  places  at  which 
foreigners  have  come  into  communication  with  the  natives 
are  for  the  most  part  situated  either  on  the  coast  line  or  on 
the  banks  of  the  great  rivers. 


18  CHINA 

At  different  periods  in  her  history,  China  has  known 
three  capitals  in  different  portions  of  her  Empire.  For 
upwards  of  a  thousand  years,  the  seat  of  Government  was 
at  Sigan,  in  the  fertile  Wei  valley,  which  crosses  the 
province  of  Shensi.  In  the  year  420  A.  D.,  the  imperial 
residence  was  transferred  to  Kienkang  on  the  Yangtze, 
which  thenceforth  became  known  as  Nanking,  the  southern 
capital,  and  there  within  one  of  the  largest  cities  of  the 
Empire,  surrounded  by  strong  walls,  the  court  was  held  for 
more  than  eight  centuries.  In  1260,  the  Mongol  Emperor 
Chitsou,  better  known  as  Kublai  Khan,  removed  from  the 
southern  capital,  and  chose  as  his  resting-place  the  city  of 
Cambaluc,  which  came  to  be  renamed  Peking,  or  northern 
capital.  The  city  stands  in  the  middle  of  an  extensive 
plain,  twelve  miles  northwest  of  Tung  Chow  on  the  Pei 
Ho,  and  160  miles  from  the  Gulf  of  Pechili.  It  is  reached 
by  a  road  from  Tung  Chow,  the  town  which  marks  the 
limit  of  navigation  on  the  Pei  Ho.  It  is  surrounded  by 
walls  fifty  feet  high  and  sixty  wide,  and  entered  through 
strong  gates,  all  of  which  are  closed  at  night.  The  city 
consists  of  three  divisions :  the  Chinese  city,  the  Tartar 
city  and  the  Purple  Forbidden  city,  sacred  to  the  Emperor 
and  his  immediate  retinue.  The  latter  is  strictly  guarded, 
and  is  rarely  entered  by  any  under  the  rank  of  first  man- 
darin or  viceroy.  The  Chinese  and  Tartar  cities  are  very 
large,  and,  like  all  the  other  towns  in  the  Empire,  very 
dirty.  The  population  is  estimated  at  about  a  million. 
The  streets  are  fairly  typical,  being  gaily  decorated  but 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE  19 

filthy  to  a  degree,  and  the  condition  of  the  streets,  owing 
to  an  utter  lack  of  either  drains  or  supervision,  is  such  as 
to  disgust  the  visitor,  and  prevent  his  going  out  except  in  a 
closed  chair.  The  most  striking  feature  of  Peking  is  the 
dust  which  permeates  every  quarter  and  finds  its  way 
through  every  interstice.  Despite  the  unpleasantness  of 
this  nuisance,  it  is  said  to  serve  a  useful  purpose  in  acting 
as  a  disinfectant,  an  important  desideratum  mid  such  sur- 
roundings as  those  to  be  found  in  the  Chinese  capital. 

The  most  important  cities  in  the  north  of  China,  after 
Peking,  are  Tientsin,  Paoting,  Tai  Yuen,  Sigan,  Tsinan 
and  Chifu.  In  Central  China,  inland,  are  Cheng-tu,  Nan- 
chang,  Changsha,  and  Talifu  ;  and  on  the  Yangtze  Kiang, 
Chungking,  Ichang  Shaszi,  Hankow  with  Wuchang,  Nan- 
king, Chinkiang,  Shanghai,  Hanchau,  Ningpo  and  Fuchow. 
In  the  south  are  Yunnan,  Nanning,  Wuchau,  Canton, 
Amoy  and  Swatow.  Of  these  Peking  and  Nanking,  the 
two  capitals,  possess  an  interest  which  is  mainly  historical. 
Of  the  commercial  centres  the  chief  are  Shanghai,  Hankow 
and  Tientsin,  being  the  main  trade  centres  of  South,  Cen- 
tral, and  North  China  respectively.  Hongkong,  which  is 
British  territory,  and  totally  free  from  Chinese  interference, 
is  in  reality  the  great  forwarding  centre  for  the  foreign  trade  of 
China,  and  it  is  from  Victoria,  the  capital,  that  the  markets 
throughout  the  length  and  breadth  of  the  land  are  supplied. 

It  remains  to  speak  of  the  produce  of  the  country.  As 
will  have  been  gathered  from  the  foregoing,  China  is  well 
supplied  both  with  agricultural  and  with  mineral  wealth. 


20  CHINA 

Foremost  among  the  articles  for  which  the  Empire  has 
long  been  famous  are  tea,  silk,  wax,  cotton  and  rice,  and 
these  are  produced  in  various  parts  of  the  Empire.  The 
production  of  tea,  though  declining  alike  in  quantity  and 
quality,  is  yet  considerable,  and  the  culture  of  the  plant  and 
its  preparation  find  occupation  for  the  people  in  half-a- 
dozen  provinces.  The  best  growths  are  produced  in  the 
western  and  southern  provinces,  bordering  on  the  Yangtze. 
The  finest  black  tea  comes  from  Hupeh  and  Hunan,  a 
second  quality  hailing  from  Fukien,  while  the  choicest 
green  tea  is  grown  in  Chekiang  and  Anwei.  Both  kinds 
of  plant  prove  prolific  in  the  climate  of  Sechuan  and 
Kwangtung.  A  considerable  proportion  of  the  leaf  pro- 
duced is  utilized  in  the  preparation  of  brick  tea,  which  is 
largely  exported  to  Mongolia  and  Tibet,  where  it  is  highly 
appreciated  on  account  of  its  portability  and  keeping  quali- 
ties. Within  the  limits  of  the  Empire,  tea  is  practically 
the  national  drink.  It  is  not  taken,  as  with  us,  at  special 
meals,  but  is  used  as  a  beverage,  and  kept  available  and 
ready  for  use  at  all  times  and  in  every  household,  excepting 
only  the  very  poorest. 

Next  in  importance  to  tea  is  the  production  of  silk, 
which  owes  its  origin  to  Chinese  ingenuity.  It  is  on  record 
that  the  care  of  the  silkworm  and  the  art  of  spinning  and 
weaving  were  known  to  the  Chinese  as  early  as  two  thou- 
sand years  B.  c.  The  spinning  of  the  silk  has  always  been 
regarded  as  women's  work,  and  the  occupation  has  been 
followed  by  the  wives  and  daughters  of  the  people  from  the 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE  21 

earliest  times.  The  mulberry  is  cultivated  throughout  the 
breadth  and  length  of  the  land,  and  every  one  of  the 
eighteen  provinces  produces  its  quota  of  cocoons.  The 
silk  which  comes  from  Sechuan  is,  however,  regarded  as 
being  the  finest  in  texture  and  quality,  and  this  commands 
the  highest  price  in  the  market.  In  recent  years,  the  old- 
time  methods  of  spinning  and  weaving  by  hand  have  been 
improved  on  by  the  introduction  of  filatures^  which  have 
been  established  at  several  of  the  treaty  ports.  The  ease 
with  which  cotton  and  hemp  can  be  grown  in  the  alluvial 
lands  has  always  encouraged  the  manufacture  of  fabrics 
suited  to  the  peculiarities  of  the  native  cotton.  The  Chi- 
nese cloths  are,  however,  inferior  to  the  machine-made  ar- 
ticle, which  is  gradually  beating  them  out  of  the  field.  The 
culture  of  the  opium  poppy  *  has,  notwithstanding  the  de- 
nunciation of  the  traffic  by  the  Government,  long  been 
largely  indulged  in,  and  the  production  of  the  drug  has, 
during  recent  years,  considerably  increased.  Tobacco,  at 

1  In  1907  an  edict  was  issued  to  end  opium-smoking.  Lord  William 
Gascoyne-Cecil  relates  that  in  1907  the  country  was  beautiful  with  white 
and  pink  poppy  fields  and  in  1909  not  a  single  poppy  flower  was  to  be 
seen.  He  adds  :  "  Could  any  Western  power  hope  to  accomplish  such 
a  feat  ?  Would  the  most  extreme  temperance  reformer  suggest  that  all 
public  houses  should  be  closed,  that  the  amount  of  barley  should  be 
diminished  every  year  till  within  ten  years  none  should  be  grown,  and 
that  all  the  Government  officials,  from  the  Prime  Minister  downwards, 
should  become  total  abstainers  within  that  period  ?  The  reason  of  this 
vigorous  action  of  China  and  its  present  success  is  to  be  attributed  to  two 
things:  first,  to  the  terrible  and  very  real  national  fear  that  this  vice  will 
destroy  the  nation,  as  it  has  destroyed  countless  families  and  individuals; 
secondly,  to  the  vast  store  of  energy  which  enables  China  to  accept  new 
ideas  and  act  vigorously  on  them." 


22  CHINA 

first  grown  in  Manchuria,  has  gradually  found  its  way  into 
China  proper,  and  is  now  cultivated  in  many  districts. 
Sugar  is  grown  with  considerable  success  in  the  southeast. 

The  mineral  deposits  of  the  country  have  not  yet  been 
thoroughly  prospected ;  but,  judged  by  the  reports  of  ex- 
perts who  have  had  opportunities  of  surveying  the  surface, 
the  land  is  the  most  richly  mineralized  in  the  world.  The 
absence  of  suitable  communications  and  the  objection  of 
the  people  to  having  the  interior  visited  by  foreigners,  have 
hitherto  stood  in  the  way  of  any  satisfactory  opening  up  of 
the  subterranean  wealth  which  undoubtedly  exists  and  the 
first  promise  of  a  change  in  the  condition  of  things  is  to  be 
noted  in  the  granting  of  the  Shansi  and  Honan  concessions. 
Coal-fields  abound  in  Chili,  Shansi,  Honan,  Shantung, 
Hunan  and  Yunnan.  These  fields  cover  a  large  extent 
of  country  and  the  quality  of  the  coal  discovered  is  excel- 
lent. The  deposits  in  Shansi  are  declared  by  the  greatest 
living  expert  to  be  the  most  extensive  in  existence,  cover- 
ing many  thousand  square  miles,  and  containing  sufficient 
fuel  to  supply  the  world  with  all  the  coal  it  needs  for  thou- 
sands of  years. 

Nor  is  coal  the  only,  or  indeed  the  principal,  mineral  de- 
posit in  China.  Iron  is  found  as  freely  as  is  coal,  the  two 
being  frequently  found  in  juxtaposition.  Lead,  tin  and 
mercury  are  produced  in  paying  quantities,  and  copper 
abounds  in  Hupeh,  Hunan  and  Shantung.  Gold  is  worked 
in  Manchuria,  and  it  is  known  to  exist  in  the  southern 
provinces,  while  traces  of  silver  have  also  been  noted.  Salt 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE  23 

workings  are  numerous  throughout  the  loess  beds  and  sup- 
ply a  valuable  contribution  to  the  revenue. 

The  Chinese  are  descended  from  the  Tartars,  who, 
thousands  of  years  ago,  peopled  the  great  wastes  of  Siberia, 
and,  by  migration  and  intermarriage,  became  merged  in  the 
people  of  China,  Mongolia,  Manchuria,  Korea  and  Japan. 
The  parent  stock  was  a  hardy  one,  and  besides  becoming 
responsible  for  the  peopling  of  northern  and  central  Asia, 
they  found  their  way  to  the  south,  where  they  implanted 
certain  characteristics  to  be  found  to-day  in  the  peoples  of 
Burma,  of  Siam  and  of  Tibet.  The  first  Chinese  are  said 
to  have  settled  in  the  province  of  Shensi,  where,  according 
to  the  records  of  the  semi-mystical  period  of  Celestial  his- 
tory, they  appointed  one  Fohi  to  be  their  first  ruler  about 
three  thousand  years  before  the  Christian  Era,  and  to  this 
reputed  first  monarch  of  future  millions  is  credited  the  de- 
vising of  the  leading  outlines  of  the  Chinese  system  of 
moral  and  political  economy.  Though  little  more  than  his 
name  has  endured,  he  is  supposed  to  have  originated  the 
Chinese  calendar,  to  have  introduced  the  cycle  of  sixty 
years,  and  to  have  inaugurated  that  love  of  exclusiveness 
and  that  extravagant  conceit,  which  form  to-day  such 
strongly-marked  characteristics  in  the  Celestial  character. 

The  original  Tartar  stock  consisted  mostly  of  nomad 
tribes.  These  spread  and  became  dispersed,  and,  as  always 
happens,  the  individuality  of  each  set  of  immigrants  to  fresh 
pastures  became  affected  by  their  geographical  surroundings. 
Thus  it  came  about  that  the  Mongols  proper,  who  had 


24  CHINA 

settled  in  the  northwest  of  Asia,  and  the  Tunjusian  or 
Turanian  tribes,  who  pitched  their  tent  in  the  northeast, 
became  a  rude  and  semi-barbarous  people,  shy  of  inter- 
course, and  given  to  strife  among  themselves.  Of  these, 
the  lowest  in  civilization  were  the  Arinians,  who  peopled 
the  districts  of  the  Yenisee  and  the  Amur  Rivers,  races 
who  did  not  cultivate  the  land  and  who  ate  their  meat  raw. 
It  is  from  these  that  the  Manchus  are  descended  and  it  is 
remarkable  that  such  savage  and  illiterate  tribes  should  have 
proved  the  forerunners  of  so  fine  and  stalwart  a  race  as  the 
people  of  modern  Manchuria. 

The  early  history  of  the  Chinese  people  is  a  record  of  civil 
war,  rapine  and  robbery,  and  it  is  doubtless  to  the  constant 
struggles  which  were  indulged  in  that  the  race  owes  its 
power  of  organization  and  its  administrative  ability.  The 
Chinese  and  their  fellow  Asiatics  vary  in  physique  and 
attributes  in  different  parts  of  the  Empire,  but  in  certain 
characteristics  they  closely  resemble  one  another.  The  in- 
habitants of  China  proper  are  the  most  cultivated  and  highly 
civilized  of  all  the  subjects  of  the  "  King  of  Heaven." 
They  possess  a  literature  essentially  refined,  a  love  of  learn- 
ing non-existent  elsewhere,  and  a  regard  for  law  and  order 
admirable  in  its  consistency.  The  Mongols,  on  the  other 
hand,  lack  all  these  attributes,  the  only  strong  point  of 
which  they  can  boast  being  a  simplicity  of  taste  and  love 
of  peace.  The  Tibetans,  like  the  Mongolians,  to  whom 
they  are  nearly  akin,  resemble  the  Burmese  rather  than  the 
Celestials.  They  are  an  indolent  race,  given  to  pleasure 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE  25 

and  practicing  polyandry.  The  Siamese,  Annamese  and 
Shans,  all  of  Chinese  descent,  possess  the  civilization  of 
their  ancestors  without  their  strong  character.  They  are 
vain,  weak,  and  effeminate,  and  in  Tonkin  and  the  adjoin- 
ing French  territories,  which  have  been  brought  under  an 
injudicious  governmental  system,  they  are  becoming  treach- 
erous, mean  and  dangerous  to  those  with  whom  they  are 
brought  into  contact. 

The  characteristics  of  the  population  of  the  eighteen 
provinces  vary  greatly.  The  people  of  northern  China  are 
a  more  stalwart  and  hardy  tribe  than  those  of  the  south, 
while  the  race  which  is  located  along  the  coast  line  between 
Shanghai  and  Canton  differs  alike  in  language  and  in  cus- 
toms from  the  rest.  The  inhabitants  of  Chili  and  Shansi 
are  strongly  opposed  to  foreign  intercourse,  and  do  not 
hesitate  to  annoy  or  even  ill-use  the  stranger  within  their 
gates.  In  Shantung  and  Anwei  the  people  are  more  peace- 
ably inclined,  and  altogether  more  tolerant  of  the  "  bar- 
barians." The  most  typical  of  the  pure  Chinese  are  to-day 
to  be  found  in  the  province  of  Hunan  where  the  people 
possess  a  finer  physique  and  more  highly-developed  intelli- 
gence than  elsewhere.  These  are,  however,  the  most  ex- 
clusive of  the  Chinese,  intolerant  to  a  degree,  and  always 
ready  to  attack  the  foreigner.  The  character  of  the  Celes- 
tial, like  most  things  connected  with  his  country,  is  para- 
doxical. The  Chinese  possess  many  attributes  which  are 
in  themselves  admirable.  On  the  other  hand,  they  evince 
certain  shortcomings  which  are  proportionately  despicable. 


HISTORY 

EDWARD  HARPER  PARKER 

THE  semi-historical  period,  as  distinguished  from 
the  semi-mythical  period,  begins  about  noo  B.  c., 
and  now  it  is  that  we  find  a  new  dynasty  has  to 
cope  with  northern  Tartars  as  well  as  western  Tibetan 
invaders,  who  were  the  chief  bane  of  earlier  dynasties;  in 
fact,  this  dynasty,  which  was  practically  invited  in  by  the 
people,  owing  to  the  misrule  of  the  ejected  Chinese  mon- 
arch, is  described  as  being  of  "  Western  stranger  "  origin — 
a  term  which  sounds  much  more  suggestive  than  it  really  is, 
for  no  great  distance  is  meant.  At  this  moment  all  China 
south  of  the  Yangtsze,  all  the  Upper  Yangtsze  valley  and  the 
Shantung  promontory,  were  still  in  the  hands  of  barbarian 
tribes.  Nothing  was  yet  known  of  Mongolia,  Manchuria, 
Corea,  Japan,  Tonquin,  Tibet,  or  Kokonor.  The  condition 
of  China  was  much  like  that  of  the  Roman  Empire  after 
the  conquest  of  Italy,  but  previous  to  the  Punic  wars.  In 
Europe  there  was  some  vague  notion  of  Britain,  Germany, 
Spain,  France,  the  barbarians  of  the  Danube,  and  so  on,  all 
of  which  peoples,  if  strange  to  the  Romans  and  Italians 
were  at  any  rate  of  Aryan  race  like  themselves.  Rome 
had  usurped  the  Greek  place  in  civilization  and  was  con- 
fronted with  Semitic  and  Hamitic  rivals  to  the  south,  in 


HISTORY  27 

shape  of  Carthage  and  Egypt.  In  China  it  is  not  to  be 
doubted  that  the  unconquered  tribes  to  the  south  were,  as 
they  still  are,  of  tone-using,  monosyllabic  race,  akin  to  the 
Chinese.  The  more  westerly  and  new  dynasty  usurped 
the  old  one's  place  in  civilization  and  was  confronted  with 
Turanian  rivals  to  the  north.  Rome's  expansion  was  north- 
wards amongst  her  own  kind :  her  truly  foreign  foes  lay 
southward  across  the  seas.  China's  expansion  was  south- 
wards amongst  her  own  kind :  her  truly  foreign  foes  lay 
northward  across  the  deserts.  The  policy  of  the  new  dy- 
nasty was  to  parcel  out  the  "  middle  kingdom  "  (which  is 
still  the  current  name  for  China)  into  fiefs  or  principalities, 
the  Emperor  receiving  a  moderate  province  to  his  own 
direct  rule,  and  exercising  over  his  feudal  relatives  a  sort 
of  loose  supervision  akin  to  that  which  the  Popes  of  the 
Middle  Ages  practiced  over  European  States.  Copies  of 
all  the  most  important  vassal-state  archives  and  chronicles 
were  preserved  at  the  imperial  capital,  which  also  issued 
ceremonial,  astrological,  and  other  functional  directions  and 
rules.  There  is  evidence  to  show  that  many  dialects  were 
spoken  then,  as  now,  and  that  the  methods  of  writing, 
whilst  maintaining  a  general  resemblance,  differed  in  slight 
detail  in  the  various  States.  Documents  were  scratched 
with  a  style  upon  thin  tablets  of  wood  or  bamboo,  almost 
as  we  may  see  at  this  day  the  Hindu  bankers  scratching 
their  accounts  upon  dried  palmyra  leaves.  Hence  books 
were  cumbrous  and  expensive,  and  recorded  knowledge 
was  necessarily  confined  (as  with  ourselves  during  the 


28  CHINA 

Middle  Ages)  to  a  very,  limited  official  and  fiterary  class. 
Parts  of  Manchuria  were  now  conquered,  but  political  deal- 
ings with  that  region  were  subsequently  confined  to  the 
principality  situated  about  modern  Peking,  and  have  no  im- 
portant bearing  on  general  or  imperial  history. 

There  are  fairly  trustworthy  accounts  or  traditions  that 
about  B.  c.  977  a  Chinese  Emperor  made  a  great  military 
tour  of  inspection  over  Mongolia  and  the  highroads  to  the 
West ;  there  is  specific  mention  of  kumiss,  or  mares'  milk, 
and  of  a  mountain  known  to  be  near  modern  Urga  and  the 
Russian  town  of  Kiachta.  In  the  whole  of  Chinese  history 
and  tradition  there  does  not  seem  to  be  the  faintest  hint  of 
any  knowledge  of  the  Great  West  anterior  to  this.  Though 
we  have  thousands  of  clay  inscriptions  in  London,  some  of 
them  6,000  years  old,  not  even  the  mere  mention  of  writ- 
ing on  clay  ever  once  occurs  in  Chinese  tradition,  so  that 
we  must  wait  for  specific  evidence  before  we  couple  Chi- 
nese culture  with  Akkadian.  This  travelling  Emperor 
seems  to  have  lost  the  old  influence  over  the  Tibetan  tribes 
on  his  frontier,  and  about  B.  c.  874  the  westernmost  princi- 
pality of  Ts'in  first  secured  that  influence,  and  then  sepa- 
rated from  the  Chinese  federal  system  altogether.  A  few 
years  later  we  find  the  Emperor  approving  one  of  the  vassal 
successions  in  Shantung ;  but  subsequent  to  this  the  cen- 
tral authority  begins  to  wane,  and  this  waning  of  the  cen- 
tral power  is  coincident  with  the  date  which  the  first  and 
greatest  Chinese  historian  (whose  book,  written  2,000  years 
ago,  is  perfectly  good  and  plain  reading  now)  assigns  to 


HISTORY  29 

the   commencement   of  true  and  exact  history;    that    is, 
B.C.  827. 

Now,  although  we  arrive  at  last  at  the  portals  of  true 
history,  the  chief  difference  between  it  and  the  more  doubt- 
ful history  is  that  the  dates  are  precise,  and  exhortations  to 
act  give  frequent  place  to  intelligible  action.  The  more 
certain  facts  in  no  other  way  either  differ  in  quality  from 
or  discredit  the  older  uncertain  ones.  It  is  evident  that  if 
all  English  records  previous  to  1800  were  absolutely  an- 
nihilated, our  defective  memories  and  traditions  would  soon 
force  us  to  confess  that  the  true  history  of  England  began 
in  1 80 1.  So  with  Chinese  history.  It  is  sober  enough. 
There  is  no  reason  why  we  should  not  accept  as  vaguely 
true  what  we  are  vaguely  told  ;  no  reason  for  inventing 
what  we  are  not  told;  and  no  reason  (judging  by  the 
provable  fidelity  of  the  true  later  history)  to  suppose  that 
the  less  exact  and  therefore  less  provable  'history  ever  was 
unfaithful.  Chinese  history  begins  2700  B.  c.,  but  it  is 
insipid  and  intangible  until  B.  c.  800,  which  is  about  the 
date  when  genuine  Western  history  began  too;  that  is  to 
say,  until  the  quite  recent  discoveries  in  Asia  Minor, 
Crete,  Egypt,  Babylonia  and  Persia  yielded  to  our  archae- 
ologists whole  libraries  of  forgotten  records,  some  dating 
long  anterior  to  the  supposed  creation  of  the  world.  If, 
instead  of  cumbersome  but  perishable  wood,  the  Chinese 
had  used  still  more  cumbersome  but  imperishable  baked 
mud,  we  might  hope  to  achieve  in  due  course  the  same 
triumphant  results  for  China.  As  matters  stand,  it  is  no 


30  CHINA 

exaggeration  to  say  that  we  have  scarcely  a  single  Chinese 
document  of  importance  actually  existing  now  as  it  existed 
2,000  years  ago ;  all  the  ancient  writings,  with  trivial  ex- 
ceptions, are  copies  from  memory,  or  transcriptions  in  a 
modified  form  of  writing,  from  defective  manuscripts. 

From  800  to  200  B.  c.  the  Chinese  imperial  power  de- 
clined, very  much  as  the  Roman  power  and  the  mediaeval 
Germano-Roman  power  successively  declined  in  Europe. 
The  feudal  princes  ruling  over  territories  roughly  corre- 
sponding to  the  now  existing  northern  provinces  contested 
both  with  each  other  and  with  the  Emperor  for  supremacy  ; 
very  much  as  France,  Spain,  England,  Germany  and  Italy 
intrigued  with  each  other,  and  with  the  Pope,  for  temporal 
advantages,  whilst  at  the  same  time  accepting  the  Pope's 
spiritual  supremacy  when  it  suited  them.  Dove-tailed  in, 
between  what  the  Chinese  called  the  half-dozen  Great 
Powers,  were  minor  states  corresponding  to  our  Belgium, 
Holland,  Switzerland  and  Denmark.  Looming  away  to 
the  west  was  the  untamed  state  of  Ts'in,  like  Russia  in 
Peter  the  Great's  time,  developing  her  resources  in  distant 
secrecy  and  nourishing  vast  ambitions.  Along  the  line  of 
the  Yangtsze  River  were  powers  only  half  Chinese,  which 
may  be  compared  with  our  half  European  Turkey,  Saracen 
Spain  and  Egypt  or  Syria.  Sometimes  one  great  Power 
became  doyen,  or  "  holder  of  the  cow's  ear";  sometimes 
the  other ;  offensive  and  defensive  alliances  were  formed, 
minor  Powers  rose  and  fell,  the  Emperor  was  hustled,  bar- 
barian aid  (chiefly  Tibetan)  was  invoked,  and  finally,  be- 


HISTORY  31 

tween  400  and  200  B.  c.,  the  vassal  States  openly  assumed 
independent  regal  status,  just  as  the  Teutonic  and  other 
countries  nominally  under  the  sovereignty  of  the  Roman 
Augustus,  or  Supreme  Emperor,  arrogated  to  themselves, 
first  the  title  of  Caesar  or  Associate  Emperor,  and  then  that 
of  Augustus.  It  was  in  the  middle  of  this  transition  pe- 
riod, say  500  B.  c.,  that  Confucius  occupied  a  commanding 
position  as  statesman  in  the  vassal  Kingdom  of  Lu  (part  of 
Shantung).  Lu  was  a  highly  respectable  power,  but  never 
a  great  one,  and  Confucius'  aim  was  to  suppress  violent 
ambitions  and  mean  passions,  to  restore  the  Emperor's  su- 
preme authority,  and  to  do  away  with  "  Jingoism,"  both  in 
political  and  provincial  life.  The  end  of  all  this  was  that 
Ts'in,  which  in  B.  c.  374  had  rejoined  the  federal  system 
after  a  separate  and  semi-barbarous  existence  of  500  years, 
gradually  intrigued  or  fought  other  States  one  by  one  out  of 
their  independence,  until  at  last,  in  B.C.  221,  the  trium- 
phant King  of  that  country  assumed  the  new  title  of 
Hwang-ti,  or  Imperator,  which  continues  in  use  to  this  day. 
During  all  this  time  the  various  vassal  States  had  natu- 
rally increased  their  knowledge  of  South  China,  Korea,  and 
other  outlying  parts;  but  although  Chinese  colonies  pushed 
along  the  lines  of  the  great  rivers,  it  seems  quite  certain 
that  no  part  outside  the  area  of  the  Yellow  River  and  its 
tributaries  was  yet  any  more  truly  Chinese  than  Britain, 
Gaul,  Batavia,  Spain,  Pannonia,  Africa,  and  other  parts 
colonized  or  occupied  by  Roman  power  were  truly  Italian. 
There  were  from  time  to  time  brushes  with  the  various 


32  CHINA 

Tartar  horsemen  in  the  north,  and  several  great  walls  were 
built  a  century  or  more  before  the  so-called  First  Emperor 
conquered  the  whole  of  China  and  constructed  or  increased 
the  long  line  of  now  ruined  fortifications  still  extending 
from  the  Shan-hai  Kwan  (during  1900-1  in  our  occupa- 
tion) to  near  Lake  Kokonor. 

It  was  in  B.  c.  221  that  occurred  one  of  those  great  epoch- 
making  events  upon  which  hinges  the  main  history  of  the 
world.  Since  her  readmission  into  Chinese  diplomacy  in  B.  c. 
374  the  western  State  of  Ts'in  had  made  such  excellent  use 
of  her  opportunities  in  agriculture,  diplomacy  and  war,  that 
the  other  States,  including  the  Imperial  State,  fell  one  after 
the  other  into  her  toils,  and  were  crushed  out  of  political 
existence,  as  already  stated.  The  King  of  Ts'in  (who, 
like  the  modeller  of  our  own  new  system,  William  the 
Conqueror,  was  a  bastard)  at  last  declared  himself  Supreme 
Ruler  of  the  world  (as  then  known),  divided  what  we  now 
call  China  Proper  into  thirty-six  provinces  ;  and  set  about 
making  a  series  of  military  promenades  in  person,  which, 
however,  never  extended  southward  of  the  lakes  Poyang 
and  Tungting.  The  Tartars  were  driven  beyond  the  Yel- 
low River;  an  attempt  was  made  to  simplify,  to  assimilate, 
or  standardize  the  various  forms  of  writing ;  the  present 
writing-brush  was  invented  or  improved  ;  the  axles  of  all 
carts  were  made  of  the  same  breadth,  so  as  to  facilitate 
trade  movements ;  an  adjusted  calendar  was  circulated ; 
laws,  weights  and  measures  were  verified  ;  and  metal  arms 
were  called  in  to  be  recast  into  bells  and  images.  Whilst 


HISTORY  33 

touring  towards  the  Shan-hai  Kwan  and  modern  Chefoo, 
the  Emperor  heard  vague  rumours  of  certain  islands  beyond 
the  sea,  which  the  vassal  Kingdom  around  modern  Peking 
had  already  either  discovered  or  heard  of  a  century  before 
this.  These  islands  were  Japan  \  but  as  yet  nothing  defi- 
nite was  known  of  Japan,  Korea,  Manchuria,  Mongolia, 
Tibet,  Indo-China,  or  even  Canton,  Foochow  and  Yun 
Nan. 

This  revolutionary  Emperor  died  in  B.  c.  210,  whilst  on 
tour,  and  at  a  spot  quite  close  to  where  2,100  years  later  a 
murder  of  German  missionaries  led  up  to  the  present  situa- 
tion in  China.  His  son  was  a  poor  eunuch-ridden  creature, 
incompetent  to  carry  on  the  grandiose  ideas  of  the  father, 
in  consequence  of  which  revolts  broke  out  through  the 
whole  "  block-head  "  region  (as  the  restricted  area  of  true 
China  was  then  called),  and  several  rival  adventurers  strug- 
gled for  power.  This  is  one  of  the  most  charming  and 
vivid  stories  in  the  history  of  the  world,  and  yields  not  one 
whit  in  interest  when  compared  with  the  accounts  of  the 
two  Caesars'  struggles  with  Pompey  and  Mark  Antony. 
Any  one  who  can  understand  French  may  read  every  line 
of  it  in  a  translation  of  China's  first  great  history  published 
by  Professor  Chavannes  of  Paris. 

At  last  the  adventurer,  known  from  his  appanage  as  the 
Prince  of  Han,  succeeded  in  destroying  all  his  rivals,  and 
in  establishing  himself  as  Emperor  at  modern  Si-an  Fu 
(the  place  to  which  the  flying  Empress-Dowager  betook 
herself  in  the  year  1900).  There  were  two  or  three  sue- 


34  CHINA 

cessive  editions  of  the  Han  dynasty,  which  from  first  to 
last  endured  from  B.  c.  206  to  A.  D.  263.  There  was  a 
short  break  at  the  time  of  Our  Lord's  birth,  but  by  A.  D. 
25,  the  Eastern  Han  had  got  rid  of  revolutionary  pretenders, 
and  had  planted  its  new  capital  securely  at  modern  Ho-nan 
Fu.  Between  A.  D.  220  and  263  the  Empire  was  divided 
into  three,  owing  to  Imperial  decay  and  rival  ambitions. 
The  northern  or  Old  China  part  was  entirely  in  the  hands 
of  a  rival  house,  founded  by  the  celebrated  General  Ts'ao 
Ts'ao,  whose  achievements  are  as  much  a  matter  of  noto- 
riety in  China  as  the  contemporary  struggles  between  Sep- 
timius  Severus  and  his  rival  Clodius  Albinus  for  the 
possession  of  Rome  in  Europe.  The  third  edition  of 
the  Han  house  ruled  in  what  we  now  call  Szechwan, 
which  was  then  a  congeries  of  Tibetan  and  other  half- 
savage  tribes.  South  China,  but  thinly  populated  by  tribes 
of  the  Annamese,  Siamese,  and  Lolo  type,  was  loosely  held 
up  by  a  third  successful  family,  which  thus  had  a  monopoly 
of  the  Roman,  Persian  and  Indian  shipping  trade.  Rome, 
or  Roman  Syria,  was  then  called  Ta-ts'in. 

The  total  results  of  these  460  years  of  Han  rule  may  be 
shortly  summarized  as  follows :  The  power  of  the 
Hiung-nu  Tartars  or  Huns  had  been  so  broken  that, 
before  Jesus  Christ  was  born,  one-half  of  their  hordes  had 
been  driven  far  away  towards  the  Aral  Sea  and  the  Volga; 
the  other  half  became  pensioners  and  allies  of  the  Chinese. 
But  even  these  gradually  fell  a  prey  to,  or  wore  themselves 
out  in  struggling  against,  the  rising  power  of  the  Tungusic 


HISTORY  35 

Tartars ;  so  that  when,  in  the  Third  Century  A.  D.,  China 
split  up  into  three  empires,  the  nomads  were  unable  to 
take  advantage  of  the  general  anarchy  further  than  to  seize 
portions  of  undefended  territory,  and  temporarily  to  set  up 
as  aspirants  for  power,  after  the  fashion  of  the  Ostrogoth, 
Visigoth  and  Vandal  chiefs,  who  used  to  take  similar  advan- 
tage of  Roman  dissensions. 

China  was  reunited  in  A.  D.  265  in  the  hands  of  the 
Ts'in  dynasty,  founded,  like  most  Chinese  dynasties,  by  a 
successful  General  taking  advantage  of  a  decrepit  and  cor- 
rupt court.  From  the  very  beginning  this  new  ruling 
house  (which  must  not  be  confused  with  the  Ts'in  dynasty 
of  B.  c.  221)  had  to  contend  with  a  pack  of  Tartar  and 
Tibetan  adventurers,  more  or  less  instructed  in  Chinese 
ways  and  usually  prompted  by  renegade  Chinese  interpre- 
ters and  secretaries.  With  the  space  at  our  disposal,  it  is 
impossible  to  say  more  than  that  China,  with  her  capital  still 
at  Loh-yang  (Ho-nan  Fu),  was  like  the  more  easterly  Roman 
Empire  under  Diocletian,  Constantius,  and  Constantine. 
The  centre  had  shifted.  Buddhism  had  now  obtained  a 
firm  foothold  in  China,  as  Christianity  had  in  Europe. 
Just  as  the  Gauls,  Germans,  Goths  and  Vandals  pressed 
upon  Rome  and  Constantinople,  so  the  Koreans,  Tunguses, 
Hiung-nu  and  Tibetans  pressed  upon  the  two  capitals  of 
China.  In  yet  a  second  way  does  history  repeat  itself.  In 
A.  D.  386  the  Tungusic  Tartars  of  the  Toba  house  suc- 
ceeded, not  only  in  driving  away  all  Tartar  and  Tibetan 
rivals,  but  also  in  dividing  the  Chinese  Empire  with  the 


36  CHINA 

Ts'in  dynasty,  which  had  then  already  for  seventy  years 
been  driven  by  the  contending  Tartars  to  the  modern 
Nanking.  The  Ts'in  dynasty  soon  afterwards  collapsed 
altogether,  and  for  200  years  five  short  Chinese  houses 
ruled  one  after  the  other  in  the  south,  whilst  the  Toba 
Tartars  had  undisputed  possession  of  North  China.  This 
period  of  200  years  is  what  the  historians  call  the  "  North 
and  South  Dynasties  Period." 

The  general  development  in  the  succeeding  400  years — 
that  is  up  to  A.  D.  600 — may  be  described  as  follows  :  The 
southern  dynasties  have  developed  a  considerable  sea  trade 
with  India,  Ceylon,  Indo-China  and  the  islands  of  the 
southern  seas.  The  Toba  Tartars  ruling  in  North  China 
have  reopened  a  connection  with  the  Far  West  as  far  as 
Persia,  but  nothing  new  is  learnt  about  Mesopotamia  or  the 
Roman  Empire.  The  same  Tobas,  who  were  apparently 
akin  to  what  we  now  call  Mongols,  have  only  driven  their 
rivals,  the  Hiung-nu  away  to  the  West  in  order  to  find  an- 
other nomad  power — that  of  the  Geougen — developing  in  the 
desert  regions.  When  at  last  the  Toba  dynasty  split  up 
into  two  rival  factions,  one  faction  allied  itself  with  the 
Turks  against  the  other  faction,  allies  of  the  Geougen. 
To  cut  this  complicated  tangle  short,  China  emerged  from 
the  general  fray  united  under  one  native  emperor  of  the 
Sui  dynasty  :  Tartar  dynasties  of  all  kinds  were  driven  from 
China,  and  the  whole  of  Siberia,  Mongolia  and  Manchuria 
was  once  more  reunited  under  the  sway  of  energetic  Turk- 
ish khans. 


HISTORY  37 

Just  at  the  time  when  united  China  was  thus  left  face  to 
face  with  united  Turkey  (if  we  may  use  this  term)  news 
came,  apparently  through  Persia  and  Turkey,  of  a  great 
power  in  the  Far  West  called  Fuh-lin,  stated  to  be  identi- 
cal with  the  Ta-ts'in,  first  vaguely  heard  of  during  the  first 
century  of  the  Christian  Era,  trading  envoys  from  which 
place  came  to  China  by  sea  in  the  Second  and  Third  Cen- 
turies. This  Fuh-lin  I  take  to  be  the  growing  power  of 
the  Franks,  who  had  already  come  into  contact  with  the 
Avars  in  Bavaria.  To  this  day  Ferreng,  Afrang,  Folang, 
or  Filing  is  the  almost  universal  word  in  Eastern  languages 
for  Europeans  of  all  kinds,  and  it  is  from  this  date,  say 
A.  D.  600,  that  I  trace  the  commencement  of  true  inter- 
course and  free  interchange  of  thought  between  the  Eastern 
and  Western  group  of  civilizations.  Our  word  "  China" 
is  not  a  whit  more  clear  in  its  origin  than  is  the  Chinese 
word  "  Ferreng." 

But  now  Mahomet  arose  in  Arabia ;  the  isolated  power 
of  Tibet  had  grown  amazingly  under  the  impulse  of  Hindu 
culture  ;  a  powerful  Shan  or  Siamese  empire  had  developed 
in  Yun  Nan ;  Japan  had  adopted  Buddhism,  and  had  also 
acquired  an  extensive  knowledge  of  Chinese  civilization  ; 
Nestorian  Christians  had  found  their  way  overland  to 
China;  the  three  petty  Kingdoms  of  Korea  had  become 
metamorphosed  into  cultured  States ;  and  the  great  T'ang 
dynasty  of  China  had  overthrown  and  developed  the 
grandiose  ideas  of  the  Sui,  whose  magnificent  rule  sud- 
denly collapsed  in  the  same  way,  and  for  the  same  reason, 


38  CHINA 

as  when  the  Han  empire  took  over  the  succession  of 
Ts'in. 

At  last  we  are  brought  face  to  face  with  people  we  can 
recognize  and  facts  we  can  prove  by  evidence  available  to 
this  day.  In  the  Tibetan  city  of  Lhassa  the  original  bi- 
lingual Sanskrit-Chinese  inscriptions  dated  822  still  remain 
there,  carved  upon  stone  to  confirm  the  statements  of 
Chinese  history;  the  celebrated  Syriac-Chinese  Nestorian 
stone  still  stands  in  Si-an  Fu,  to  explain  who  the  Franks 
were,  and  what  Christianity  was ;  the  stone  inscriptions  of 
Ta-li  Fu  in  Yiin  Nan  remain  to  corroborate  the  rise  and 
fall  of  the  first  Siamese  empire ;  within  the  past  fifteen 
years  numerous  Turkish-Chinese  bilingual  slabs  have  been 
found  by  the  Russians  in  various  parts  of  Mongolia,  prov- 
ing that  the  Hiung-nu  of  B.  c.  200  to  A.  D.  200  were  the 
Turks  of  A.  D.  500  to  700;  and  during  the  migrations 
West  an  alphabet  of  Aramoean  or  Syrian  origin  had  been 
introduced,  by  way  of  Sogd,  into  Mongolia. 

After  a  brilliant  rule  of  300  years  the  T'ang  dynasty  fell 
into  decrepitude,  partly  in  consequence  of  the  exhaustion 
brought  about  by  its  incessant  struggle  with  the  Tartars, 
Tibetans  and  Siamese ;  partly  from  eunuch  influences  and 
internal  corruption.  The  Turkish  power  had,  in  the 
Seventh  Century,  been  divided  and  crushed  just  as  the  Han 
dynasty  had  split  up  and  driven  west  the  Hiung-nu  power; 
but  the  other  results  had  been  the  same.  China  was  so 
impoverished  in  blood  and  treasure  that  the  Tungusic  pow- 
ers had  once  more  time  to  grow,  and  the  remains  of  the 


HISTORY  39 

Turks  intrigued  for  rule  in  North  China  exactly  as  the  re- 
mains of  the  Hiung-nu  had  done.  China  fell  to  pieces,  and 
for  about  half  a  century  there  ruled  a  succession  of  five 
short  dynasties,  three  of  them  rather  Turkish  than  Chinese ; 
but  they  only  ruled  over  Central,  or  what  may  be  called 
"  Old  China,"  and  this  only  at  the  cost  of  paying  tribute  to 
the  Cathayans  of  modern  Peking.  The  Cathayans,  it  must 
be  explained,  were  simply  a  reshuffle  of  the  ancient  Sienpi, 
just  as  the  Turks  were  a  reshuffle  of  the  ancient  Hiung-nu. 
Meanwhile  the  south  and  west  of  China  were  once  more 
divided  into  a  number  of  semi-independent  Imperial  States 
ruling  at  or  near  what  we  now  call  Canton,  Foochow, 
Hangchow,  Nanking,  Hankow  and  Ch'eng-tu.  A  strong 
mixed  power,  usually  described  as  Tangut,  and  consisting 
chiefly  of  Tibetan  elements  under  migrated  Toba  rulers, 
gradually  gained  consistence  in  the  regions  of  Ordos  and 
Kokonor;  Korea,  Annam,  Yiin  Nan  and  Tibet  took  ad- 
vantage of  the  anarchy  to  recover  their  practical  independ- 
ence ;  and  there  followed  a  series  of  devastating  wars. 

Towards  the  close  of  the  Tenth  Century  the  situation 
stood  thus.  A  successful  General  had  succeeded  in  reunit- 
ing the  whole  of  Old  China  and  South  China  under  a  new 
native  dynasty  called  Sung.  The  Cathayans,  assisted  by 
Chinese  renegades,  and  fed  by  enormous  relays  of  artisans, 
cultivators  and  other  prisoners  of  war,  founded  a  very 
strong  empire  of  what  may  be  called  the  Parthian  or  Boer 
type,  z.  £.,  half  horse-back  and  half  settled.  For  200  years 
this  Cathayan  empire  monopolized  the  whole  of  the  su- 


40  CHINA 

preme  power  in  Mongolia,  receiving  tribute  from  the  re- 
mains of  the  Turks  to  the  west  and  the  rising  Manchu 
tribes  to  the  east. 

The  tyranny  of  the  Cathayans  over  their  eastern  vassals, 
the  true  Tunguses,  or  Manchu  States,  then  collectively 
known  as  the  Nuchen,  led  to  a  revolt  in  those  little  known 
regions.  The  tribes  in  question,  hardened  by  the  discipline 
of  a  hunting  life,  had  by  degrees  evolved  a  military  strategy 
of  no  mean  order.  Their  masters,  the  Cathayans,  had  be- 
come correspondingly  corrupt  and  softened  by  two  centuries 
of  close  contact  with  Chinese  luxury.  The  upshot  of  all 
this  was  that  the  southern  Chinese  intrigued  with  the  Nu- 
chens on  the  basis  of  regaining  for  China  the  Peking  plain, 
which  had  been  so  long  a  part  of  Cathay.  As  seems  to 
have  been  the  invariable  case  in  the  history  of  the  world 
when  a  weak  power  asks  the  aid  of  a  strong  one,  the  Nu- 
chens not  only  drove  out  of  North  China  the  common 
Cathayan  enemy,  but  soon  found  pretexts  for  keeping  the 
Peking  plain  for  themselves,  and  encroaching  farther  upon 
China  proper.  Simultaneously  with  the  substitution  of  the 
Nuchens  for  the  Cathayans  in  North  China,  the  Sung  or 
pure  Chinese  dynasty  found  it  necessary  to  move  their  cap- 
ital, which  was  in  1136  transferred  to  Hangchow.  The 
powerful  State  of  Tangut,  on  being  summoned  to  do  so, 
promptly  transferred  to  the  Nuchens  the  limited  amount  of 
homage  it  had  once  paid  to  the  Cathayans,  and  continued 
to  keep  the  two  balls  in  the  air,  so  to  speak,  by  playing  off 
North  China  against  South  China. 


HISTORY  41 

The  chief  picture  to  focus  before  the  eye  with  reference 
to  this  period — 900  to  1200  A.  D. — is  that  Tartars  of  a 
Tungusic  kind,  first  of  the  Mongol  type,  and  next  of  the 
Manchu  type,  had  absolute  and  exclusive  rule  of  the  Peking 
plain  and  the  parts  west  of  it  as  far  as  the  Ordos  bend. 
To  the  north  lay  the  rest  of  their  vast  Mongol-Manchu 
Empire,  with  which  South  or  literary  China  had  no  con- 
cern. Throughout  the  whole  of  this  period  the  mixed 
Tibeto-Chinese  populations,  under  the  rule  of  a  migrated 
Tungusic  family,  maintained  a  really  powerful  empire,  by 
Europeans  styled  Tangut,  on  account  of  the  preference 
given  to  Tangut  or  Tibetan  speech.  Owing  to  this  large 
infusion  of  Tartar  blood,  the  northern  dialects  of  China, 
and  notably  that  of  Peking,  which  is  the  best  known  to 
Europeans,  became  corrupted  in  exactly  the  same  way  that 
Latin  became  corrupted  in  Gaul.  Hence  the  Pekingese, 
or  other  "  mandarin  "  dialects  may  be  styled  the  French 
of  China,  whilst  the  true  Latin  or  ancient  classical  pronun- 
ciation must  be  looked  for  in  the  south.  Thus  it  comes 
that  Korea  and  Annam  having  practically  been  shut  out  for 
many  centuries,  we  find  that  the  numerous  Chinese  words 
imported  into  these  regions  two  thousand  years  ago  confirm 
better  than  does  any  other  pure  Chinese  dialect  the  key  to 
ancient  sounds  still  furnished  by  colloquial  Cantonese. 
During  this  period  of  divided  empire,  the  southern  Chinese 
got  into  the  habit  of  humorously  describing  the  northerners 
as  ta-ta  or  ta-tsz,  being  our  vague  word  "  Tartar."  By 
way  of  return  compliment,  the  northerners  ridiculed  the 


42  CHINA 

southern  men  as  tnati-tsz  or  "  fuzzy-wuzzies."  During 
this  same  300  year  period  nothing  whatever  is  said  of  either 
Christianity  or  Islamism ;  the  remains  of  the  Turk  seem 
to  have  quietly  developed  their  new  religion  in  political 
relation  with  the  Khaliphate,  and  to  have  gone  their  way 
totally  unheeded  by  either  North  or  South  China. 

Now  occurred  one  of  those  events  upon  which  hinge  the 
higher  history  of  the  world.  The  chief  of  an  obscure  Turko- 
Tungusic  tribe,  often  called  Ta-ta,  and  apparently  identical 
with  a  branch  of  the  Cathayan  type  already  for  centuries 
known  as  Mung-wa,  became  incensed  at  the  tyrannical  in- 
solence of  the  Niichen  tax-gatherer,  spit  in  his  face  and  told 
him  (as  we  should  say)  to  "  go  to  the  devil  "  with  his  im- 
perial master.  This  chief  was  the  future  Genghis  Khan, 
and  this  first  insubordinate  act  led  by  degrees  to  the  over- 
throwing of  the  Niichen  dynasty.  Like  all  Tartar  leaders 
who  have  once  succeeded  in  rousing  enthusiasm,  the  chief 
of  the  Mung-wa  or  Mung-ku  tribe  soon  succeeded  in  at- 
tracting to  his  banner  the  innumerable  hordes  of  Turkish 
and  mixed  race  scattered  about  with  their  horses,  cattle, 
tents  and  wagons  over  the  vast  expanse  of  North  Asia. 
One  of  the  first  things  was  to  sweep  away  the  inter- 
vening Tangut  empire  which  stood  in  his  way.  He  seems 
to  have  had  no  particular  idea  of  western  conquest  until 
the  Mussulman  Sultan  of  Otrar  in  Turkestan  behaved  in 
an  outrageous  way  to  some  Mongol  ambassadors.  This 
led  to  the  conquest  of  Turkestan,  Bucharia,  all  the 
countries  of  the  old  Ephthalite  or  Yet-ti  empire  between 


HISTORY  43 

the  Indus  and  the  Euphrates  destroyed  by  the  Turks  about 
550,  and  ultimately  to  the  incorporation  of  the  Kirghis, 
Kipchaks,  Armenians  and  Russians.  At  one  time  even 
Western  Europe  trembled  with  apprehension,  and  it  is  from 
the  accounts  left  behind  by  Rubruquis  and  other  emissaries 
sent  by  the  Pope  and  the  King  of  France  to  the  Mongol 
Khans  in  Russia  and  Mongolia  that  we  derive  much  of  our 
information  about  those  times.  This  information  is  amply 
confirmed  by  the  Chinese  histories.  The  native  historians, 
it  is  true,  understood  little  or  nothing  of  the  outlandish 
persons  and  places  they  described  on  the  authority  of  return 
warriors  in  Hungary,  Russia  and  Persia ;  but  fortunately 
they  "  nailed  their  names  at  least  to  the  counter,"  and 
scanty  though  the  context  is,  it  is  sufficient  for  us  to  know 
by  these  names  that  there  is  no  serious  distortion  of  the 
fact  as  we  are  sure  of  it  from  Western  sources.  But  even 
with  all  this  practical  experience  of  the  West,  and  the  oc- 
casional reappearance  of  the  word  Fuh-lang  or  "  Frank," 
the  Mongols  carried  back  to  China  no  definite  notion  of 
what  kind  of  people  the  Franks  really  were,  and  how  they 
stood  in  relation  to  the  old  Roman  Empire  of  Ta-ts'in. 
They  may  be  partly  excused  by  the  circumstance  that  the 
Byzantine  Roman  Empire  had  then  practically  ceased  to 
exist,  and  that  the  miserable  remains  of  it  to  be  found  at 
Constantinople  were  barely  on  a  footing  of  equality  with 
the  Popes  of  Rome,  and  with  the  Teutonic  Roman  Empire, 
or  the  Western  Powers  of  Spain,  France,  England  and 
Germany. 


44  CHINA 

On  the  first  menacing  appearance  of  the  great  Mongol 
Power,  the  Nuchen  Emperor  had  appealed  in  vain  to 
Tangut  to  forget  old  grudges  and  unite  against  an  invader 
who  would  otherwise  destroy  both  in  turn.  The  Southern 
Chinese  empire  had  the  same  bitter  experience.  After 
assisting  the  Mongols  to  drive  out  the  Nuchens  the  Man-tsz 
(Marco  Polo's  Manzi)  empire  was  devoured  piecemeal  by 
Genghis  Khan's  successors  and  in  1280  Kublai  Khan, 
grandson  of  Ghenghis,  having  completed  the  conquest  of 
China,  reigned  over  the  greatest  empire  ever  seen  in  the 
Far  East. 

Marco  Polo's  faithful  narrative  best  enables  those  who 
cannot  yet  study  Chinese  history  to  judge  what  this  empire 
was.  Members  of  Kublai's  family  ruled  over  Russia,  the 
Caucasus,  Persia,  all  the  Pamir  countries,  all  the  useful 
parts  of  Siberia  and  Manchuria.  Mongol  viceroys  dictated 
conditions  to  Korea,  Tibet,  Burma  and  Annam.  Mongol 
influence  extended  fitfully  to  Sulu,  Java,  Sumatra,  the  Bay 
of  Bengal  and  Ceylon.  Japan  alone  succeeded  in  absolutely 
repelling  any  attempt  at  invasion.  But  the  usual  course  of 
events  followed  :  Saul  among  the  prophets  was  not  more 
out  of  place  than  are  nomad  Tartars  on  a  civilized  throne. 
Success  begat  insolence  and  carelessness,  and  Kublai's  suc- 
cessors soon  dissipated  their  great  inheritance.  Even 
Kublai  himself  only  ruled  immediately  over  China  proper, 
and  his  empire  beyond  that  was  much  less  firmly  knit  to- 
gether than  is  the  Manchu  empire  even  now.  His  cous- 
ins in  the  west  soon  proclaimed  their  independence,  and  in 


HISTORY  45 

1368  the  Chinese  rose  en  masse  against  their  oppressors, 
who  were  promptly  driven  back  to  their  native  deserts  and 
steppes.  It  must  be  conceded,  however,  that  the  Mongols 
were  tolerant  of  foreign  religions  and  foreign  science. 
Islam,  Christianity  and  Buddhism  all  enjoyed  as  much 
countenance  as  Confucianism. 

The  priestly  founder  of  the  purely  Chinese  Ming  dy- 
nasty, whose  venerated  tomb  is  still  respectfully  preserved  at 
Nanking,  completely  changed  the  face  of  affairs.  China 
for  the  Chinese  was  his  motto,  and  the  provinces  were  soon 
reorganized,  much  on  their  present  basis,  with  a  firm  hand. 
The  Mongol  policy  of  conquest  and  forced  homage  was 
modified,  if  not  entirely  abandoned.  Korea,  Tibet,  An- 
nam  and  other  bordering  States  were  encouraged  by  just 
treatment  to  attach  themselves  voluntarily  to  the  new  em- 
pire, but  otherwise  left  to  administer  themselves.  Mes- 
sages were  sent  by  Prankish  merchant  envoys  to  Europe ; 
the  change  of  dynasty  was  notified  to  the  Central  Asian 
States ;  and  a  very  lively  sea-trade  sprang  up  in  the  early 
part  of  the  Fifteenth  Century  with  Japan,  Loochoo,  Ma- 
nila, Borneo,  Java,  Sumatra,  Siam,  India,  Arabia,  and  the 
northwest  parts  of  Africa.  This  was  the  only  period  in 
Chinese  history  (and  it  did  not  last  many  years)  when 
Chinese  assumed  a  truly  aggressive  and  even  military  as- 
pect in  the  Indian  Ocean  ;  the  accounts  given  by  Marco 
Polo  prove  that  the  Mongol  trading-junks  had  frequented 
exactly  the  same  ports  as  were  a  century  later  visited  by 
powerful  Chinese  fleets.  The  disappointed  Mongol 


46  CHINA 

hordes  naturally  endeavoured  to  avenge  their  dismissal  to 
the  deserts,  and  gave  incessant  trouble  by  hovering  aggres- 
sively upon  the  northern  frontiers,  just  as  the  Hiung-nu, 
the  Turks,  the  Cathayans  and  the  Niichens  had  succes- 
sively done  before  them.  The  very  name  of  all  these  na- 
tionalities had  now  utterly  disappeared  from  men's  minds. 
Mongol  was  the  only  name  for  all  Tartars,  except  that  the 
powerful  Western  Mongols  or  Kalmucks,  were  usually  dis- 
tinguished as  Eleuths.  The  Niichens,  or  Manchus,  were 
loosely  grouped  as  Uriangkha  Mongols,  and  forgotten. 
Christianity  utterly  disappeared  for  over  two  centuries,  and 
very  little  was  heard  of  Islam.  The  Japanese,  aroused  to 
secular  hostility  against  China  partly  through  the  recollec- 
tion of  Kublai  Khan's  abortive  invasion,  kept  up  incessant 
piratical  attacks  by  land  and  the  Japanese  raids  by  sea  led 
China  to  adopt  a  policy  of  exclusion,  which  was  further 
accentuated  when  the  Folangki,  or  Franks,  in  the  shape  of 
Portuguese  and  Spaniards,  appeared  upon  the  scene  about 
1520.  They  were  not  at  first  recognized  as  the  old  Fuh- 
lin,  but  were  supposed  to  be  strange  savages  from  the 
southern  ocean. 

It  may  be  said  that,  between  the  collapse  of  the  Mongols 
and  the  arrival  by  sea  of  Europeans,  China  kept  pretty 
closely  within  her  shell.  Marco  Polo's  story  was  long  re- 
garded in  Italy  as  a  mere  sailor's  yarn,  and  the  ignorance  of 
China  throughout  Europe  was  obsolete.  As  for  Zipangu, 
or  Japan,  it  was  appraised  by  Westerners  as  a  fictitious 
invention,  until  Mendez  Pinto  actually  visited  the  place 


HISTORY  47 

about  1542.  During  this  period  of  comparatively  peaceful 
seclusion,  the  Nuchen  tribes,  driven  away  by  the  Mongols, 
and  for  300  years  almost  entirely  forgotten,  had  time  to 
grow  strong  in  their  distant  obscurity.  Under  the  new  and 
ill-explained  name  of  Manchu,  they  began  to  come  into 
prominence  on  the  Chinese  frontier  just  at  the  very  time 
Japan  was  nervously  wrestling  in  her  own  domains  with 
Christianity,  and  when  the  jealous  Japanese  Napoleon  Hi- 
deyoshi  was  sending  his  Christian  Generals  to  the  front, 
like  so  many  Uriahs,  to  attack  China  through  Korea. 
Meanwhile  eunuch  misgovernment  and  excessive  taxation 
had  provoked  serious  internal  rebellions  in  Shansi  and  Ho- 
nan.  Expiring  China  had  succeeded,  before  these  broke 
out,  in  saving  Korea  from  permanent  occupation  by  Japan, 
and  the  first  Jesuit  missionaries  managed  to  imbue  the 
Chinese  Emperor  with  a  kindly  and  tolerant  feeling  towards 
Christianity.  At  this  auspicious  moment,  a  lucky  turn 
might  have  made  China  a  Christian  country  under  friendly 
European  tutelage  :  but  it  was  already  too  late ;  the  hungry 
and  discontented  Chinese  rebels  took  Peking ;  the  Emperor 
committed  suicide  ;  the  Manchu  enemy  was  foolishly  called 
in  to  assist ;  and  of  course  he  did  what  all  Tartars  had 
done  before  him,  and  what  the  Russians  seem  to  aim  at  now 
in  Manchuria — he  took  the  contested  quarry  for  himself. 
Under  pretext  that  there  were  no  legitimate  heirs  to  the 
Ming  throne,  the  Manchu  prince,  in  1644,  declared  him- 
self Emperor  of  China,  and  proceeded  to  extend  and  con- 
solidate his  conquests. 


48  CHINA 

Many  readers,  after  the  events  of  the  past  years,  will  think 
it  incongruous  when  I  suggest  that  the  Manchu  dynasty 
is,  perhaps,  the  very  best  the  Chinese  ever  had.  But  it  is 
so.  The  first  Emperor  died  young  ;  the  second,  K'ang-hi, 
ruled  gloriously  for  sixty  years,  and  has  left  a  name  which 
both  in  literature  and  in  war  is  imperishable.  He 
thoroughly  conquered  and  consolidated  the  Chinese  Em- 
pire, besides  securing  his  position  in  Mongolia,  Russian 
Siberia  and  Korea.  His  grandson  K'ien-lung  also  reigned 
for  full  sixty  years  i  he  was  one  of  the  wittiest  and  most 
intelligent  men  that  ever  sat  upon  a  throne.  The  Kal- 
mucks, Tibet,  Turkestan,  Formosa,  Annam,  Nepaul, 
Burma — all  these  were  either  crushed  or  severely  handled  in 
turn  j  and  at  last  the  boundaries  of  his  vast  empire  were 
fixed  as  we  see  them  marked  now  on  the  maps.  Lord 
Macartney  visited  him  just  over  a  century  ago. 

Decay  and  rebellion  set  in  with  the  Nineteenth  Century 
just  expired.  None  of  the  Emperors  were  particularly 
bad  men  as  rulers,  but  they  have  all  been  inferior  in  capac- 
ity to  the  two  excellent  monarchs  above  specified.  The 
introduction  from  India  of  opium  on  a  large  scale  undoubt- 
edly led  to  a  hostile  feeling  against  foreign  trading  con- 
cessions generally,  just  as  the  introduction  of  profitless 
religious  disputes  upon  mere  points  in  empty  dogma  exer- 
cised an  unfavourable  influence  upon  the  reception  accorded 
to  European  religions.  The  Opium  War  of  1839-42, 
the  "Arrow"  lorcha  War  of  1858-60,  the  Taiping 
rebellion  of  1854-64,  the  Mussulman  revolts  in  Yun  Nan 


HISTORY  49 

and  Kashgaria,  the  stealthy  advance  of  Russia,  the  Japa- 
nese seizure  of  Formosa  in  1874,  the  French  hostilities  of 
1884 — all  these  mark  steps  in  disaster;  but,  with  astonish- 
ing sagacity  and  vitality,  China  was  gradually  surviving 
the  ill  effects  of  all,  and  was  consolidating  her  position, 
when  the  unfortunate  Japanese  war  broke  out.  This  blow 
fairly  staggered  China.  As  she  attempted  to  struggle  to 
her  feet,  Germany  delivered  a  final  knock-out  blow  in  the 
shape  of  the  Kiao  Chou  affair ;  then  took  place  a  rush  for 
the  spoils  of  the  dying  gladiator.  In  sheer  desperation  the 
old  empire  made  one  last  mad  dying  lunge  for  freedom  in 
the  shape  of  the  foolish  "  Boxer "  revolt.  Undoubtedly 
she  would  have  been  torn  to  pieces  this  time  had  it  not 
been  for  the  remnants  of  conscience  ultimately  exhibited  by 
Great  Britain,  the  United  States  and  Japan,  for  an  alliance 
with  which  last  named  gallant  country  I,  with  others,  have 
pleaded  from  time  to  time — I  am  glad  to  say  now  success- 
fully. 


DR.  SUN  YAT  SEN  AND  THE  CHINESE 
REVOLUTION 

J.  ELLIS  BARKER 

A  FEW  days  ago  we  received  the  news  that  sud- 
denly, and  almost  simultaneously,  a  revolution  had 
broken  out  in  Hupeh,  Hunnan,  and  Szechuan. 
These  three  provinces  are  situated  in  the  very  heart  of  China, 
in  the  valley  of  the  incomparable  Yangtze-kiang,  China's 
principal  highroad  and  trade  artery.  They  have  together 
about  125,000,000  inhabitants.  They  contain  some  of  the 
greatest  industrial,  commercial,  and  mining  centres  of  China, 
and  they  possess  an  importance  comparable  with  that  which 
Lancashire  and  Yorkshire  have  for  Great  Britain  and  which 
the  States  of  Massachusetts,  Illinois,  and  Pennsylvania,  with 
the  towns  of  Boston,  Chicago,  Saint  Louis,  Philadelphia, 
and  Pittsburg  have  for  the  United  States.  The  position  in 
China  is  extremely  serious,  and  people  are  asking  them- 
selves, What  are  the  causes  of  this  sudden  revolution,  and 
what  are  its  aims  ?  What  is  the  character  of  its  organizer, 
Dr.  Sun  Yat  Sen,  and  what  is  his  policy  ?  How  will  the 
revolution  affect  China  and  the  surrounding  States,  es- 
pecially India  ?  How  will  it  affect  the  foreigners  living  in 
China,  European  interests,  and  the  balance  of  power  in  the 
Far  East  ?  Last,  but  not  least,  ought  Great  Britain,  which 
alone  is  able  to  control  the  situation,  to  interfere  in  the 


DR.  SUN  YAT  SEN  51 

struggle,  and  what  should  be  her  policy  if  other  nations  wish 
to  intervene  f 

I  have  perhaps  some  qualifications  for  answering 
these  questions.  During  many  years  I  have  taken 
a  great  interest  in  Chinese  history,  literature,  and 
politics,  and  especially  in  the  latter.  Only  a  few 
months  ago  I  visited  the  great  Chinese  settlements  in  New 
York,  Los  Angeles,  San  Francisco,  Seattle,  Vancouver,  and 
Victoria,  British  Columbia,  where  I  discussed  the  situation 
in  China  with  many  of  the  most  prominent  Chinese  citi- 
zens. In  Victoria  I  had  the  good  fortune  of  meeting  Dr. 
Sun  Yat  Sen  himself.  I  spent  several  afternoons  and  even- 
ings in  his  company,  and  when  he  found  that  I  had  much 
sympathy  with  his  country  and  his  countrymen,  he  told  me 
without  reserve  of  his  plans,  and  allowed  me  to  discuss  with 
him  every  aspect  of  the  Chinese  question.  As  the  charac- 
ter of  a  revolution  depends  largely  on  the  character  of  its 
leader,  I  would  give  a  brief  account  of  the  impression  which 
I  received  from  my  intercourse  with  Dr.  Sun  Yat  Sen. 
The  doctor  is  a  man  of  medium  height,  slight  but  wiry,  and 
is  forty-five  years  old.  He  speaks  good  English.  He  is 
very  quiet  and  reserved  in  manner,  and  extremely  moderate, 
cautious,  and  thoughtful  in  speech.  He  gives  one  the  im- 
pression of  being  rather  a  sound  and  thorough  than  a  bril- 
liant man,  rather  a  thinker  than  a  man  of  action.  He  does 
not  care  to  use  the  dramatic  eloquence  which  appeals  to  the 
imagination  and  the  passions  of  the  masses,  and  which  is 
usually  found  in  political  and  religious  reformers  of  the  or- 


52  CHINA 

dinary  kind.  But  then  the  Chinese  are  perhaps  not  so  emo- 
tional as  are  most  Eastern  and  Western  nations.  I  have 
heard  Dr.  Sun  Yat  Sen  addressing  a  meeting  of  his  coun- 
trymen. He  spoke  quietly  and  almost  monotonously  with 
hardly  any  gestures,  but  the  intent  way  in  which  his 
audience  listened  to  every  word — his  speeches  occupy  often 
three  and  four  hours,  and  even  then  his  hearers  never  tire 
of  listening  to  him — showed  me  the  powerful  effect  which 
he  was  able  to  exercise  over  his  hearers  by  giving  them  a 
simple  account  of  the  political  position  in  China,  of  the  suf- 
ferings of  the  people,  and  of  the  progress  of  the  revolution- 
ary movement. 

The  majority  of  the  Chinese  in  America  are  revolution- 
aries, and  they  worship  their  leader.  Chinamen  are  com- 
monly supposed  to  be  sordid  materialists,  devoid  of  patriot- 
ism, and  interested  only  in  money-making,  who  are  always 
ready  to  sell  their  country  to  the  enemy.  The  incorrect- 
ness of  that  widely-held  belief,  and  the  influence  of  Dr. 
Sun  Yat  Sen,  will  be  seen  from  the  fact  that  the  Chinese 
living  outside  China  have  given  enormous  sums  to  the  revo- 
lutionary movement.  According  to  the  doctor's  state- 
ments, many  have  given  him  their  entire  fortune.  Even 
the  poorest  shopkeepers  and  laundrymen  contribute  their 
mite. 

Dr.  Sun  Yat  Sen  seems  to  be  actuated  solely  by  unselfish 
motives.  He  does  not  "  make  a  good  thing  "  out  of  his 
agitation,  like  so  many  professional  agitators.  I  found  him 
at  a  fourth-rate  hotel,  a  kind  of  lodging-house  for  working 


DR.  SUN  YAT  SEN  53 

men,  occupying  a  bare  and  miserable  little  room.  His 
dress  was  modest  and  his  luggage  scanty.  Upon  my  in- 
quiring he  told  me  smilingly  of  the  many  attempts  which 
have  been  made  on  his  life,  and  enumerated  the  rewards 
which  the  Chinese  Imperial  Government,  and  various 
provincial  Governments,  have  offered  for  his  head.  If  I 
remember  rightly,  they  amount  altogether  to  the  enormous 
sum  of  700,000  taels,  or  about  ;£  100,000.  One  night, 
when  we  had  been  discussing  Chinese  affairs  till  past  mid- 
night at  my  hotel,  I  wished  to  accompany  him  back  to  his 
hotel,  a  distance  of  about  three-quarters  of  a  mile,  partly 
from  courtesy,  partly  in  order  to  protect  him  if  he  should 
be  attacked.  Although  he  was  alone,  he  absolutely  refused 
my  repeated  and  pressing  offers.  At  last  I  told  him, 
"  With  a  reward  of  .£100,000  on  your  head,  you  should  not 
go  alone  through  the  deserted  streets  of  a  strange  town.  If 
you  have  no  fear  for  yourself,  you  should  at  least  spare 
yourself  for  your  cause  and  your  country."  He  replied 
with  a  quiet  smile  which  was  half  sad  and  half  humorous  : 
"  If  they  had  killed  me  some  years  ago,  it  would  have  been 
a  pity  for  the  cause ;  I  was  indispensable  then.  Now  my 
life  does  not  matter.  Our  organization  is  complete.  There 
are  plenty  of  Chinamen  to  take  my  place.  It  does  not  mat- 
ter if  they  kill  me."  That  little  incident  showed  the  charac- 
ter, spirit,  and  courage  of  the  man.  After  saying  good-bye 
at  the  door  of  the  hotel,  I  followed  Dr.  Sun  Yat  Sen  at  a 
distance,  feeling  responsible  for  my  guest's  safety.  To  my 
surprise,  I  found  that  none  of  his  countrymen  were  waiting 


54  CHINA 

outside  to  escort  him  to  his  hotel.  The  streets  were  empty. 
A  Chinaman  might  easily  have  earned  that  night  the  reward 
of  700,000  taels.  Simple,  unaffected,  and  modest,  Dr.  Sun 
Yat  Sen  gives  one  the  impression  of  a  really  great  man  in 
the  fullest  sense  of  the  word.  It  is  ridiculous  to  compare 
him  with  Benjamin  Franklin  and  with  Garibaldi,  for  he 
stands  by  himself,  and  is  likely  to  be  classed  in  history 
among  the  world's  greatest  men.  No  greater  task  has  ever 
been  attempted  than  that  of  reforming  the  oldest  and  the 
most  conservative  State  the  world  has  seen,  and  of  con- 
verting it  into  a  republic.  The  reform  of  Japan  is  but 
a  small  thing  compared  with  the  re-creation  of  China. 

Dr.  Sun  Yat  Sen  told  me  that  he  had  millions  of  ad- 
herents, and  described  to  me  the  organization  of  his  society, 
which,  with  its  self-supporting  branches,  its  honorary  presi- 
dents, etc.,  may  be  compared  with  the  great  political  as- 
sociations existing  in  Anglo-Saxon  countries.  The  doctor 
has  led  an  agitator's  life  for  more  than  twenty  years.  At 
first  he  was  in  favour  of  reform.  He  became  a  revolution- 
ary when,  at  last,  he  recognized  that  all  attempts  to  reform 
China  by  peaceful  and  orderly  methods  were  quite  hope- 
less. He  told  me  that  the  revolutionary  movement  had  re- 
ceived an  enormous  impetus  when,  during  the  short  reform 
period  inaugurated  by  the  late  Emperor,  many  thousands  of 
students  belonging  to  the  best  families  had  gone  abroad, 
especially  to  Japan — in  1905  there  were  10,000  Chinese 
students  in  Japan: — who  had  come  to  see  with  their  own 
eyes  the  hopeless  backwardness  of  China,  the  tyranny  of  its 


DR.  SUN  YAT  SEN  55 

Government,  and  the  necessity  of  thorough  reform  in  order 
to  save  it  from  utter  ruin.  Thus,  a  very  large  number  of 
men  belonging  to  the  educated,  cultured,  and  privileged 
classes  had  become  his  supporters,  and  had  spread  the  gos- 
pel of  revolt  all  over  the  country.  The  Government  knew 
the  strength  of  the  revolutionary  party  and  feared  it.  A 
revolution  would  break  out  within  two  years.  Practically 
the  whole  of  the  modern  army,  that  is,  that  part  of  the  army 
which  has  been  drilled  by  Europeans  and  Japanese,  were 
patriots,  and  were  on  the  side  of  the  revolution.  The  Gov- 
ernment, being  aware  of  this,  relied  for  its  defence  on  the 
ancient  and  unreformed  military  forces,  hired  cutthroats 
without  the  sense  of  patriotism,  who  fought  merely  for  their 
pay.  These  guarded  the  magazines  and  arsenals,  and  were 
provided  with  plenty  of  ammunition.  The  modern  army 
was  left  without  ammunition.  To  ensure  their  harmlessness 
only  five  cartridges  per  man  were  allowed  for  firing  prac- 
tice, and  only  small  parties  of  men  were  given  cartridges  at 
any  time.  The  greatest  needs  of  the  revolutionaries  were 
money  and  arms. — By  the  seizure  of  the  important  Han- 
yang arsenal  and  treasury,  the  revolutionaries  have  obtained 
both  at  the  outset  of  their  operations,  and  through  their  con- 
trol of  mines  and  factories  they  can  manufacture  all  the  im- 
plements, arms,  and  ammunition  which  they  need. 

China  has  had  about  twenty  dynasties,  which  have  been 
introduced  by  as  many  revolutions,  but  China  has  remained 
unreformed.  A  change  of  dynasty  is  therefore  no  longer 
considered  a  remedy  for  China's  ills.  China  has  hitherto 


56  CHINA 

been  governed  by  an  absolutism  which  was  supposed  to  be 
paternal,  but  which  has  become  tyrannical.  The  people 
are  tired  of  being  misgoverned.  They  wish  to  govern 
themselves.  The  revolutionary  party  desires  to  convert 
China  into  a  republic.  China  proper  is  a  loose  conglomer- 
ate of  eighteen  semi-independent  provinces  ruled  by 
Viceroys.  They  are  to  be  replaced  by  republics  having 
Parliaments  of  their  own.  These  local  Parliaments  will 
look  after  purely  local  affairs,  while  national  affairs  will  be 
under  the  control  of  a  supreme  National  Parliament.  The 
Government  of  China  will  be  modelled  on  that  of  the 
United  States  or  of  Canada,  and  all  has  been  prepared  for 
effecting  such  a  change.  In  Dr.  Sun  Yat  Sen's  opinion, 
the  Chinese  people  are  able  to  govern  themselves,  being  in- 
dustrious, orderly,  and  docile,  especially  as  they  have  been 
trained  in  the  art  of  self-government  and  cooperation 
through  their  powerful  guilds  and  secret  societies.  He  told 
me  that  the  Chinese  were  revolting  not  against  the  foreign- 
ers but  against  their  corrupt  Government,  against  the 
Manchus.  The  Europeans  dwelling  in  China  would  be 
safe.  A  reformed  China  would  be  friendly  to  all  nations, 
but  it  would  expect  to  be  treated  as  a  civilized  nation  when 
it  had  earned  the  respect  of  Europe  and  could  no  longer  be 
reproached  with  barbarism. 

The  Chinese  revolution  is  caused  by  the  misgovernment 
and  corruption  which  are  apparently  inseparable  from 
China's  present  form  of  government.  In  China  there  are 
about  400,000,000  Chinese  and  5,000,000  Manchus.  The 


DR.  SUN  YAT  SEN  57 

latter,  having  conquered  the  country,  reserved  to  themselves 
all  positions  of  power  and  profit.  They  rule  through  a 
host  of  more  or  less  irresponsible  and  venal  officials,  most 
of  whom  are  Manchus.  Self-preservation  is  the  first  in- 
stinct in  men.  Owing  to  their  great  numerical  inferiority 
it  was  in  the  interest  of  the  Manchus  that  the  people  should 
be  weak,  ignorant,  unwarlike,  and  disunited.  Therefore 
the  chief  aim  of  the  Manchu  policy  was  not  to  maintain  the 
integrity  of  the  country  and  to  promote  the  welfare  of  the 
people,  but  to  preserve  the  power  of  the  ruling  caste  and 
to  keep  the  people  in  subjection.  Intercourse  with  foreign 
nations  would  have  been  profitable  to  the  Chinese  traders, 
and  it  would  have  enlightened  the  Chinese  people.  How- 
ever, the  enlightenment  of  the  people  might  become  danger- 
ous to  the  small  ruling  caste.  Therefore  the  Manchu  offi- 
cials preached  hatred  to  the  foreigners,  who  were  excluded 
from  the  country.  To  the  Manchus  a  disastrous  war  was 
a  smaller  calamity  than  the  existence  of  a  national  army 
which  might  overthrow  them.  So  the  Chinese  army  was 
neglected,  and  the  country  was  humiliated  and  despoiled  by 
all  nations.  Modern  industries  and  railways  would  have 
increased  the  national  prosperity,  but  as  both  would  have  in- 
creased the  power  and  cohesion  of  the  people,  the  introduc- 
tion of  both  was  forbidden.  The  people  prayed  for  good 
and  honest  government.  However,  as  the  officials  were 
Manchus  they  had  to  be  humoured  to  ensure  their  fidelity 
and  support,  and  thus  they  were  allowed  to  prey  upon  the 
people.  During  two  and  a  half  centuries  the  Chinese  were 


58  CHINA 

ruled  by  an  absolute  and  corrupt  bureaucracy,  and  their 
taskmasters  were  aliens. 

Confucianism,  the  prevailing  doctrine  of  China,  is  neither 
a  religion  nor  a  system  of  transcendental  or  cosmic  philoso- 
phy. It  is  an  agnostic  system  of  ethics,  and  a  system  of 
practical,  and  purely  temporal,  common-sense  philosophy 
which  sees  no  further  than  this  earth.  It  takes  practically 
no  notice  whatever  of  the  question  of  an  after-life,  of 
eternity,  of  future  rewards  and  punishments,  of  God.  It 
teaches  merely  that  one  ought  to  do  good  because  it  is 
man's  duty  to  do  good.  Confucianism  is  entirely  con- 
cerned with  the  relations  between  man  and  man,  and  it 
deals  very  fully  with  the  question  of  government,  with  the 
administration  of  justice,  and  other  practical  matters.  Con- 
fucianism is  the  most  democratic  of  doctrines.  It  con- 
demns in  the  most  unsparing  terms  governmental  absolutism 
and  favouritism,  the  appointment  of  incompetent  officials, 
and  official  tyranny  and  extortion — the  very  evils  which 
exist  in  China.  All  Chinese  study  the  Classics  as  soon  as 
they  have  mastered  the  alphabet. 

Official  appointments  have,  until  lately,  been  made  solely 
on  the  strength  of  purely  literary  attainments,  although  we 
read  in  the  Confucian  Analects,  "  Though  a  man  be  able  to 
recite  the  three  hundred  odes  but  be  incapable  as  an  ad- 
ministrator or  an  ambassador,  and  cannot  work  without  as- 
sistance, of  what  practical  use  is  then  his  knowledge  ? " 

Chinese  literature  is  extremely  rich  in  telling  proverbs. 
Many  of  these  insist  on  the  supremacy  of  the  people  : 


DR.  SUN  YAT  SEN  59 

"  The  people's  will  is  the  will  of  Heaven."  Others 
emphasize  the  authority  of  the  law,  and  complain  of  the 
tyranny  of  officialdom,  the  venality  of  the  judges,  and  the 
necessity  of  forming  secret  societies  for  the  mutual  protec- 
tion of  the  people.  A  proverb  says :  "  The  mandarin 
derives  his  power  from  the  law,  the  people  from  the  secret 
societies."  Another  warns  us:  "The  doors  of  the  law 
courts  stand  wide  open,  but  you  had  better  not  enter  if  you 
are  only  strong  in  right,  but  not  strong  in  cash."  Another 
tells  us  :  "  The  friendship  of  mandarins  impoverishes  j  that 
of  merchants  makes  rich." 

The  foregoing  extracts  suffice  to  show  that  the  tyrannical 
misgovernment,  official  incompetence  and  obstructive  con- 
servatism prevalent  throughout  China  are  not  due  to  the  in- 
fluence of  Confucianism  as  has  hitherto  been  believed  in 
the  West.  They  are  opposed  to  Confucianism,  and  are 
condemned  by  it. 

The  condition  of  the  Chinese  people  has  been  well  de- 
scribed by  Dr.  Sun  Yat  Sen,  in  1897,  in  the  following 
words,  which  incidentally  show  his  great  literary  ability  and 
power  and  his  wonderful  command  of  the  English  lan- 
guage : — 

"  The  form  of  rule  which  obtains  in  China  at  present 
may  be  summed  up  in  a  few  words.  The  people  have  no 
say  whatever  in  the  management  of  imperial,  national,  or 
even  municipal  affairs.  The  mandarins,  or  local  magistrates, 
have  full  power  of  adjudication,  from  which  there  is  no  ap- 
peal. Their  word  is  law  and  they  have  full  scope  to  prac- 


60  CHINA 

tice  their  machinations  with  complete  irresponsibility,  and 
every  officer  may  fatten  himself  wiih  impunity.  Extortion 
by  officials  is  an  institution.  It  is  the  condition  on  which 
they  take  office  j  and  it  is  only  when  the  bleeder  is  a  bungler 
that  the  Government  steps  in  with  pretended  benevolence 
to  ameliorate,  but  more  often  to  complete,  the  depletion. 

"  English  readers  are  probably  unaware  of  the  smallness 
of  the  established  salaries  of  provincial  magnates.  They 
will  scarcely  credit  that  the  Viceroy  of,  say,  Canton,  ruling 
a  country  with  a  population  larger  than  that  of  Great 
Britain,  is  allowed  as  his  legal  salary  the  paltry  sum  of  £60 
a  year  j  so  that,  in  order  to  live  and  maintain  himself  in 
office,  accumulating  fabulous  riches  the  while,  he  resorts  to 
extortion  and  the  selling  of  justice.  So  with  education. 
The  results  of  examinations  are  the  one  means  of  obtain- . 
ing  official  notice.  Granted  that  a  young  scholar  gains 
distinction,  he  proceeds  to  seek  public  employment  and,  by 
bribing  the  Peking  authorities,  an  official  post  is  hoped  for. 
Once  obtained,  as  he  cannot  live  on  his  salary,  perhaps  he 
even  pays  so  much  annually  for  his  post,  licence  to  squeeze 
is  the  result,  and  the  man  must  be  stupid  indeed  who  can- 
not, when  backed  up  by  the  Government,  make  himself 
rich  enough  to  buy  a  still  higher  post  in  a  few  years. 
With  advancement  comes  increased  licence  and  additional 
facilities  for  his  enrichment,  so  that  the  cleverest c  squeezer' 
ultimately  can  obtain  money  enough  to  purchase  the  high- 
est positions. 

41  This  official  thief,  with  his  mind  warped  by  his  mode 


DR.  SUN  YAT  SEN  61 

of  life,  is  the  ultimate  authority  in  all  matters  of  social, 
political,  and  criminal  life.  It  is  a  fatal  system,  an  im- 
pertunt  in  imperio,  an  unjust  autocracy  which  thrives  by  its 
own  rottenness.  But  this  system  of  fattening  on  the  public 
vitals — the  selling  of  power — is  the  chief  means  by  which 
the  Manchu  dynasty  continues  to  exist.  With  this  legal- 
ized corruption  stamped  as  the  highest  ideal  of  government, 
who  can  wonder  at  the  existence  of  a  strong  undercurrent 
of  dissatisfaction  among  the  people  ? 

"  The  masses  of  China,  although  kept  officially  in  igno- 
rance of  what  is  going  on  in  the  world  around  them,  are 
anything  but  stupid  people.  All  European  authorities  on 
this  matter  state  that  the  latent  ability  of  the  Chinese  is 
considerable;  and  many  place  it  even  above  that  of  the 
masses  in  any  other  country,  European  and  Asiatic. 
Books  on  politics  are  not  allowed ;  daily  newspapers  are 
prohibited  in  China;  the  world  around,  its  people  and 
politics,  are  shut  out ;  while  none  below  the  grade  of  a 
mandarin  of  the  seventh  rank  is  allowed  to  read  Chinese 
geography,  far  less  foreign.  The  laws  of  the  present 
dynasty  are  not  for  public  reading ;  they  are  known  only 
to  the  highest  officials.  The  reading  of  books  on  military 
subjects  is,  in  common  with  that  of  all  other  prohibited 
matter,  not  only  forbidden  but  is  even  punishable  by  death. 
None  is  allowed  on  pain  of  death  to  invent  anything  new,  or  to 
make  known  any  new  discovery.  In  this  way  are  the  people 
kept  in  darkness,  while  the  Government  doles  out  to  them 
what  scraps  of  information  it  finds  will  suit  its  own  needs. 


62  CHINA 

"  The  *  Literati '  of  China  are  allowed  to  study  only  the 
Chinese  classics  and  the  commentaries  thereon.  These 
consist  of  the  writings  of  the  old  philosophers,  the  works 
of  Confucius  and  others.  But  even  of  these,  all  parts  re- 
lating to  the  criticism  of  their  superiors  are  carefully  ex- 
punged, and  only  those  parts  are  published  for  public  read- 
ing which  teach  obedience  to  authorities  as  the  essence  of 
all  instruction.  In  this  way  is  China  ruled — or  rather  mis- 
ruled— namely,  by  the  enforcement  of  blind  obedience  to 
all  existing  laws  and  formalities. 

"  To  keep  the  masses  in  ignorance  is  the  constant  en- 
deavour of  Chinese  rule." 

Matters  have  very  slightly  improved  since  1897.  Still, 
the  position  is  in  the  main  as  it  was  then,  and  the  people 
are  worse  off  than  they  were  fourteen  years  ago,  through 
the  very  great  increase  in  taxation,  and  its  constantly  grow- 
ing arbitrariness. 

The  revolutionary  principles  of  Dr.  Sun  Yat  Sen  were 
laid  down  in  a  pamphlet  of  his  entitled  "  The  Solution  of 
the  Chinese  Question,"  which  was  published  in  1904. 
As  far  as  I  know  there  is  no  English  translation  of  that 
important  pamphlet.  Some  of  its  most  important  passages 
are  as  follows  : — 

"  The  Chinese  have  no  real  Government.  The  term 
4  the  Chinese  Government '  is  a  term  without  meaning. 
The  Manchus  were  a  tribe  of  savage  nomads  who  wan- 
dered about  the  deserts  of  the  Amur  before  they  came  in 
contact  with  the  Chinese.  Often  they  made  inroads  into 


DR.  SUN  YAT  SEN  63 

China  and  plundered  the  peaceful  inhabitants  near  the 
frontier.  Towards  the  end  of  the  Ming  dynasty  civil 
war  broke  out  in  China  and,  taking  advantage  of  the  con- 
fusion, the  Manchus  conquered  Peking.  That  was  in  1644. 
The  Chinese  did  not  want  to  be  enslaved  by  foreigners, 
and  offered  a  desperate  resistance.  To  overcome  the  op- 
position the  Manchus  massacred  millions  of  people,  war- 
riors and  peaceful  inhabitants,  old  and  young,  women  and 
children.  They  burned  their  houses  and  forced  the 
Chinese  people  to  adopt  the  Manchu  costume.  Tens  of 
thousands  of  people  were  killed  for  disobeying  their  orders 
to  wear  the  queue.  After  terrible  slaughter  the  Chinese 
were  forced  to  submit  to  the  Manchu  laws. 

"  The  first  measure  of  the  conquerors  was  to  keep  the 
people  in  ignorance.  They  destroyed  and  burnt  the 
Chinese  libraries  and  books.  They  prohibited  the  forma- 
tion of  societies  and  the  holding  of  meetings  for  the  dis- 
cussion of  public  affairs.  Their  aim  was  to  destroy  the 
patriotic  spirit  of  the  Chinese  to  such  a  degree  that  they 
should  in  course  of  time  forget  that  they  had  to  obey 
foreign  laws.  The  Manchus  number  5,000,000,  whilst 
the  Chinese  number  about  400,000,000.  Hence  the  con- 
querors live  under  the  constant  fear  that  the  Chinese  should 
wake  up  and  reconquer  their  country. 

"  It  is  generally  believed  among  the  people  in  the  West 
that  the  Chinese  wish  to  keep  themselves  apart  from 
foreign  nations  and  that  the  Chinese  ports  could  be  opened 
to  foreign  trade  only  at  the  point  of  the  bayonet.  That 


64  CHINA 

belief  is  erroneous.  History  furnishes  us  with  many 
proofs  that  before  the  arrival  of  the  Manchus  the  Chinese 
were  in  close  relations  with  the  neighbouring  countries, 
and  that  they  evinced  no  dislike  towards  foreign  traders  and 
missionaries.  Buddhism  was  introduced  into  China  by  an 
Emperor  of  the  Han  dynasty,  and  the  people  received  the 
new  religion  with  enthusiasm.  Foreign  merchants  were 
allowed  to  travel  freely  through  the  Empire.  During  the 
Ming  dynasty  there  was  no  anti-foreign  spirit.  The  first 
minister  became  Roman  Catholic,  and  his  intimate  friend, 
Mathieu  Ricci,  the  Jesuit  missionary  in  Peking,  was  held  in 
high  esteem  by  the  people. 

"  With  the  arrival  of  the  Manchus  the  ancient  policy  of 
toleration  gradually  changed.  The  country  was  entirely 
closed  to  foreign  commerce.  The  missionaries  were  driven 
out.  The  Chinese  Christians  were  massacred.  Chinamen 
were  forbidden  to  emigrate.  Disobedience  was  punished 
with  death.  Why  ?  Simply  because  the  Manchus  wished 
to  exclude  foreigners  and  desired  the  people  to  hate  them 
for  fear  that  the  Chinese,  enlightened  by  the  foreigners, 
might  wake  up  to  a  sense  of  their  nationality.  The  anti- 
foreign  spirit  created  by  the  Manchus  came  to  its  climax  in 
the  Boxer  Risings  of  1900,  and  the  leaders  of  that  move- 
ment were  none  other  than  members  of  the  reigning 
family. 

"  It  is  therefore  clear  that  the  policy  of  exclusion 
practised  by  China  is  the  result  of  Manchu  egotism.  It  is 
not  approved  of  by  the  majority  of  the  Chinese.  Foreign- 


DR.  SUN  YAT  SEN  65 

ers  travelling  in  China  have  often  remarked  that  they  are 
better  received  by  the  people  than  by  the  officials. 

"  During  the  260  years  of  the  Tartar  rule  we  have 
suffered  countless  wrongs  and  the  principal  are  the  follow- 
ing :— 

"  i.  The  Manchurian  Tartars  govern  for  the  benefit 
of  their  race  and  not  for  that  of  their  subjects. 

"  2.     They  oppose  our  intellectual  and  material  progress. 

"  3.  They  treat  us  as  a  subject  race  and  deny  us  the 
rights  and  privileges  of  equality. 

"4.  They  violate  our  inalienable  rights  to  life,  liberty, 
and  property. 

"  5.  They  promote  and  encourage  the  corruption  of 
officialdom. 

"  6.     They  suppress  the  liberty  of  speech. 

"  7.  They  tax  us  heavily  and  unjustly  without  our 
consent. 

"  8.     They  practise  the  most  barbarous  tortures. 

11 9.     They  deprive  us  unjustly  of  our  rights. 

"  10.  They  do  not  fulfill  their  duty  of  protecting  the 
life  and  the  property  of  the  people  living  under  their  juris- 
diction. .  .  . 

"  Although  we  have  reasons  to  hate  the  Manchus  we 
have  tried  to  live  in  peace  with  them,  but  without  success. 
Therefore  we,  the  Chinese  people,  have  resolved  to  adopt 
pacific  measures  if  possible  and  violent  ones  if  necessary  in 
order  to  be  treated  with  justice  and  to  establish  peace  in  the 
Far  East  and  throughout  the  world.  .  .  . 


66  CHINA 

"  A  new  Government,  an  enlightened  and  progressive 
Government,  must  be  substituted  for  the  old  one.  When 
that  has  been  done  China  will  not  only  be  able  to  free  her- 
self from  her  troubles,  but  also  may  be  able  to  deliver  other 
nations  from  the  necessity  of  defending  their  independence 
and  integrity.  Among  the  Chinese  there  are  many  of  high 
culture  who,  we  believe,  are  able  to  undertake  the  task  of 
forming  a  new  Government.  Carefully  thought  out  plans 
have  been  made  for  a  long  time  for  transforming  the  old 
Chinese  monarchy  into  a  republic. 

"  The  masses  of  the  people  are  ready  to  receive  a  new 
form  of  Government.  They  wish  for  a  change  of  their 
political  and  social  conditions  in  order  to  escape  from  the 
deplorable  conditions  of  life  prevailing  at  present.  The 
country  is  in  a  state  of  tension.  It  is  like  a  sun-scorched 
forest,  and  the  slightest  spark  may  set  fire  to  it.  The  peo- 
ple are  ready  to  drive  the  Tartars  out.  Our  task  is  great. 
It  is  difficult,  but  not  impossible." 

Dr.  Sun  Yat  Sen's  assertions,  contained  in  the  foregoing, 
that  a  reformed  China  would  "  establish  peace  in  the  Far 
East  and  throughout  the  world,"  seems  at  first  sight  rather 
exaggerated.  However,  I  think  there  can  be  no  doubt  that 
a  reform  of  China,  a  reform  which  would  regenerate  the 
country,  would  tend  not  only  to  establish  peace  in  the  Far 
East  but  would  also  tend  to  diminish  the  dangers  of  war 
threatening  Europe  and  America.  The  greatest  danger  to 
the  peace  in  the  Far  East  lies  undoubtedly  in  China's 
weakness.  As  long  as  China  is  weak,  Russia,  Japan,  and 


DR.  SUN  YAT  SEN  67 

other  nations  desirous  of  expansion  will  feel  tempted  to  ac- 
quire Chinese  territory,  and  as  a  peaceful  partition  of  China 
among  the  numerous  claimants  is  out  of  the  question,  a 
weak  China  will  continue  to  be  a  danger,  not  merely  to  the 
peace  of  Asia,  but  to  that  of  Europe  and  America  as  well. 
But  for  China's  weakness  the  Russo-Japanese  War  would 
never  have  occurred.  China's  weakness  has  caused  in  the 
past  dangerous  friction  between  Russia  and  England,  be- 
tween France  and  England,  between  Germany  and  Eng- 
land, and  between  the  United  States  and  Japan,  and  it  has 
more  than  once  raised  the  spectre  of  war  between  these 
countries.  The  Sick  Man  of  the  East  is  as  great  a  danger 
to  the  peace  of  the  world  as  is  the  Sick  Man  of  the  West. 

Dr.  Sun  Yat  Sen  states  that  a  reformed  China  "  will  not 
only  be  able  to  free  herself  from  her  troubles,  but  may  be 
able  to  deliver  other  nations  from  the  necessity  of  defend- 
ing their  independence  and  integrity."  He  evidently  refers 
to  the  small  nations  on  the  frontiers  of  China,  such  as 
Tibet,  which  used  to  stand  under  China's  protection,  and 
which  at  present  are  unable  to  defend  themselves  against 
the  Powers  of  the  West. 

Many  European  officers  and  other  competent  observers 
who  have  lived  in  China — I  could  mention  several  promi- 
nent generals,  admirals  and  administrators,  and  among  them 
General  Gordon — are  of  opinion  that  the  Chinese,  if 
properly  trained  and  led,  will  make  excellent  soldiers. 
Some  believe  that  the  Chinese,  owing  to  their  extremely 
hardy  constitution,  their  great  endurance  and  marching 


68  CHINA 

power,  and  their  contempt  of  death,  are  the  best  military 
material  in  the  world.  A  country  with  400,000,000  in- 
habitants can  of  course  raise  very  large  armies.  The  late 
Sir  Robert  Hart  prophesied  that  China  would  create  an  army 
of  30,000,000  men.  She  could  undoubtedly  do  this  if  she 
introduced  universal  and  compulsory  military  service  on  the 
model  of  Germany  and  France.  But  let  us  not  forget  that 
large  armies  provided  with  modern  weapons  and  the 
numerous  and  extremely  costly  appliances  indispensable  in 
modern  warfare  are  very  costly  luxuries,  and  that  China  is, 
and  will  for  many  years  remain,  a  very  poor  country.  Be- 
sides the  larger  an  army  is,  the  greater  are  the  difficulties 
of  transporting  and  provisioning  it.  The  Huns  could 
travel  without  baggage  when  invading  Europe.  Nowadays 
the  transport  of  the  impedimenta  of  an  army  offers  in- 
finitely greater  difficulties  than  the  transport  of  the  men 
themselves.  The  idea  of  a  score  of  millions  of  China- 
men overrunning  and  overwhelming  India,  Asiatic  Russia, 
and  Europe,  cannot  be  seriously  discussed  except  by  those 
who  are  ignorant  not  only  of  military  affairs  but  also  of 
China's  geographical  position.  The  peculiarities  of  China's 
geographical  position  will  be  clear  from  the  following 
figures : — 


China  proper  (18  Provinces) 
Manchuria     
Mongolia  
Tibet     

Area. 
1,532,420  sq.  miles 
363,610      « 
1,367,600      " 
463,200      « 

Population. 
407,253,030  people 
16,000,000      « 
2,600,000      " 
6,500,000      " 

Chinese  Turkestan  .... 

550»340      « 

1,200,000      " 

Total  of  the  Chinese  Empire 
United  Kingdom  

4,277,170      " 
121,391       « 

433-553.030      " 
45,000,000      •« 

DR.  SUN  YAT  SEN  69 

The  foregoing  table  shows  that  the  eighteen  Provinces 
of  China  proper,  with  their  400,000,000  inhabitants,  occupy 
only  a  little  more  than  one-third  of  the  gigantic  territory  of 
all  China.  If  we  look  at  the  map  we  find  that  China  is 
almost  isolated  from  the  outer  world,  for  those  parts  of  China 
which  do  not  touch  the  sea  are  separated  from  the  neigh- 
bour nations  by  an  enormous  belt  of  deserts  and  mountains 
which  make  an  invasion  by  large  foreign  armies  across  the 
land  frontiers  and  an  attack  by  large  Chinese  armies  upon 
her  Continental  neighbours  equally  difficult  if  not  impossi- 
ble. The  populous  provinces  of  China  proper  are  separated 
from  British  India  by  the  tremendous  mountain  wastes  of 
Tibet,  a  country  which  is  almost  four  times  as  large  as  the 
whole  of  the  United  Kingdom,  and  they  are  separated  from 
Russia  by  the  enormous  deserts  of  Mongolia  and  Turkestan, 
which  together  are  fifteen  times  as  large  as  the  United 
Kingdom.  Yet  these  countries  have  together  only  10,000,- 
ooo  inhabitants.  We  can  best  represent  to  ourselves  their 
desolation  and  the  sparsity  of  their  inhabitants  by  imagining 
that  the  whole  of  the  United  Kingdom  was  inhabited  by 
500,000  people,  a  number  which  would  correspond  to  the 
population  of  the  outlying  portions  of  China. 

If  a  Chinese  army  should  succeed  in  crossing  the  enor- 
mous, foodless  and  roadless  wastes  surrounding  China, 
which  are  peopled  only  by  wandering  tribes  of  nomads  and 
a  small  number  of  mountaineers,  it  would  still  have  to  cross 
the  Himalayas  before  it  could  penetrate  into  India,  and  the 
vast  Siberian  deserts  before  it  could  attack  Russia.  We 


yo  CHINA 

know  the  difficulty  of  penetrating  Tibet  with  a  small  force, 
and  of  providing  camel  transport  for  crossing  a  desert  such 
as  the  Gobi  desert.  How  many,  then,  of  the  teeming 
millions  of  China  would  survive  the  ordeal  of  a  march 
across  the  Chinese  frontiers  ?  An  advance  into  Burma  and 
thence  into  India,  and  an  advance  through  the  slightly  more 
populated  Manchuria  into  Eastern  Siberia  is  possible,  but  it 
would  bring  a  Chinese  army  only  to  Assam  in  the  former 
case,  and  to  the  comparatively  valueless  Russian  Amur  and 
maritime  Provinces  with  Vladivostock  in  the  latter.  Be- 
sides, the  risk  run  by  the  Chinese  would  be  very  great.  It 
must  not  be  forgotten  that  China  is  not  an  inland,  but  a 
maritime,  Power  and  that  she  is  extremely  vulnerable  on 
the  sea.  All  her  largest  towns  lie  on,  or  in  easy  reach  of, 
a  hostile  navy,  and  nine-tenths  of  China's  trade  is  sea 
borne.  China  would,  therefore,  have  to  secure  the  rule  of 
the  sea  before  she  could  invade  her  neighbour  States  with 
impunity.  Confucianism  is  a  doctrine  of  peace  and  good- 
will among  men.  China  is  by  history  and  tradition  a 
peaceful  nation.  It  is  not  likely  that  the  present  revolution 
will  alter  China's  historic  character  and  the  character  of  her 
people,  but  even  if  the  character  of  China  should  be  altered 
completely  by  the  present  revolution,  if  she  should  become 
a  warlike  and  aggressive  nation,  determined  upon  attacking 
her  neighbours,  her  peculiar  geographical  circumstances 
would  prevent  her  doing  much  harm.  The  expansion  of 
China  had  ended  long  before  the  expansion  of  England 
had  even  begun.  It  had  ended  when  the  Gobi  desert  and 


DR.  SUN  YAT  SEN  71 

the  highlands  of  Tibet  were  reached.  Nature  has  set  lim- 
its to  China's  expansion.  The  Yellow  Peril  is  a  ridiculous 
bogey. 

If  ever  there  was  a  people  rightly  struggling  to  be  free  it 
is  the  Chinese.  The  Chinese  deserve  the  sympathy  of  the 
world  in  their  struggle  for  freedom  and  for  good  popular 
Government.  England  and  the  United  States,  the  great 
protagonists  of  popular  Government  in  every  country,  are 
considered  to  be  the  fairest  nations  by  the  people  in  the  Far 
East,  who  are  aware  that  Great  Britain  and  the  United 
States  have  in  the  past  invariably  shown  their  active  sym- 
pathy for  all  nations  struggling  for  freedom.  Many  China- 
men have  told  me  that  they  look  to  Great  Britain  and  to 
the  United  States  for  sympathy  and  encouragement  in  their 
attempt  to  rid  themselves  of  an  odious  tyranny,  and  that 
they  look  for  their  active  support  and  assistance  in  the  event 
that  other  nations  should  try  to  occupy  Chinese  territory  at 
a  time  when  the  Chinese  are  righting  among  themselves. 
Intervention  in  the  present  struggle  is  possible  only  from 
the  sea.  No  nation,  and  no  combination  of  nations,  can 
interfere  in  this  Chinese  civil  war  without  England's  assent, 
and  her  toleration  of  foreign  intervention  would  be  equiva- 
lent to  her  assent.  England  has  a  great  responsibility  in 
the  present  struggle,  and  has  a  great  task  to  perform. 

It  is  to  be  hoped  that  the  revolutionists  will  succeed  in 
overthrowing  the  Manchu  regime  in  a  very  short  time.  A 
protracted  struggle  would  undoubtedly  seriously  damage 
China's  foreign  trade,  and  cause  great  losses  to  the  foreign 


72  CHINA 

traders  and  to  the  foreign  capitalists  who  have  invested 
money  in  Chinese  railways  and  other  undertakings.  These 
losses  of  capital  would,  no  doubt,  be  very  serious  to  a  num- 
ber of  individuals,  but  they  would  scarcely  affect  to  a  per- 
ceptible extent  the  wealth  of  the  nations  to  which  the  indi- 
vidual investors  belong,  for  the  sum  total  of  European  and 
American  money  invested  in  China  is  comparatively  very 
small.  Hence  the  losses  arising  to  foreigners  through  the 
Chinese  civil  war  would  not  be  an  adequate  justification  for 
interference  on  the  part  of  other  nations.  It  would  not 
justify  them  to  treat  the  revolutionists  as  rebels  and  to  aid 
the  Manchu  Government  in  the  suppression  of  the  revolu- 
tion. It  would  be  morally  indefensible  for  a  European  na- 
tion to  assist  the  Manchu  Government  in  keeping  enslaved 
400,000,000  people  in  order  to  save  a  few  millions  of 
money  to  a  handful  of  capitalists  who  knew  the  risks  they 
ran  when  they  invested  their  money  in  China.  Patience 
will  pay  the  foreign  capitalists.  A  regenerated  China  will 
give  an  infinitely  greater  scope  to  European  enterprise  than 
China  in  its  present  stagnation. 

I  think  China  should  be  allowed  to  work  out  her  own 
salvation  in  her  own  way.  Foreign  intervention  would  not 
only  be  unjust,  but  might  also  be  extremely  unwise.  The 
Chinese  people  have  such  great  qualities — they  possess  far 
greater  gifts  than  the  Japanese — and  their  country  has  such 
magnificent  resources  that  they  are  bound  to  come  to  the 
front  and  to  have  a  great  future.  China  has  awakened,  and 
her  progress  cannot  be  stopped.  The  Chinese  people  have 


DR.  SUN  YAT  SEN  73 

at  last  awakened  to  a  sense  of  nationality.  They  would 
never  forgive  a  nation  which  had  taken  the  part  of  their 
alien  rulers  at  the  present  juncture  and  had  tried  to  perpet- 
uate the  misery  of  the  people,  or  which  had  robbed  China 
of  territory  during  the  present  struggle.  In  the  event  of 
foreign  nations  landing  troops,  the  revolutionaries  will  proba- 
bly not  resist,  but  will  make  all  concessions  demanded  of 
them  ;  but  they  will  continue  the  war  against  the  Manchus. 
They  cannot  fight  simultaneously  their  Government  and 
the  foreigners.  The  Chinese  have  recognized  that  they 
can  create  an  army  sufficiently  strong  to  defend  the  integrity 
of  their  country  only  when  they  have  overthrown  the  effete 
Manchu  Government,  which  is  determined  to  stifle  all 
progress  and  to  prevent  the  creation  of  a  modern  army. 
As  soon  as  the  Chinese  have  driven  out  the  Manchu  dynasty, 
and  have  introduced  good  government,  they  will  create  a 
powerful  army,  and  they  would  undoubtedly  in  course  of 
time  call  those  nations  to  account  which  had  taken  an  un- 
fair advantage  of  China's  defencelessness  during  her  pres- 
ent troubles.  It  is  as  yet  too  early  to  form  an  opinion 
whether  the  revolutionary  movement  will  succeed  or  fail. 
However,  the  best  authorities  agree  that  the  Manchu  regime 
has  been  so  seriously  discredited  in  the  eyes  of  the  people 
that  it  can  scarcely  last  much  longer.  At  the  same  time, 
the  character  of  the  revolutionary  movement  and  of  its  lead- 
ers ensures  the  ultimate  success  of  the  cause  of  progress. 
The  regeneration  of  China  is  inevitable  and  is  at  hand. 


THE  CIVILIZATION  OF  CHINA 

WU  TING-FANG 

IT  is  an  undisputed  fact  that  no  existing  country  in 
the  world  has  a  more  ancient  history  than  China, 
and  that  her  civilization  dates  from  the  earliest  times. 
Like  other  nations,  she  has  her  legends,  which  purport  to 
have  arisen  half  a  million  years  ago,  but  from  the  lack  of 
authentic  records  little  credence  can  be  attached  to  such 
claim.  The  accession  of  the  Emperor  Fuk-Hi,  2953  B.  c., 
is,  however,  recorded  in  the  Chinese  annals,  and  with  him 
begins  the  period  known  amongst  the  Chinese  as  "  High 
Antiquity."  From  that  epoch  dates  the  succession  of  dynas- 
ties down  to  the  present  time ;  and  the  names  of  the 
different  rulers,  their  reigns  and  the  principal  events  hap- 
pening in  each,  are  recorded  in  Chinese  history. 

Her  civilization  may  justly  be  described  as  the  most 
venerable  in  existence.  It  was  founded  in  the  remotest 
period  of  antiquity  and  developed  under  her  own  peculiar 
system  of  ethics,  her  own  social  and  moral  code,  without 
aid  from  extraneous  sources.  This  is  partly  due  to  her 
geographical  position,  but  chiefly  to  the  homogeneity  of 
her  people,  all  of  whom,  with  a  few  unimportant  ex- 
ceptions, belong  to  the  same  race,  use  the  same  language, 
have  a  common  religion  and  literature,  and  are  governed 


THE  CIVILIZATION  OF  CHINA          75 

by  practically  the  same  system  of  laws,  morals  and 
customs. 

Religious. — From  time  immemorial,  the  Chinese  appear 
to  have  had  definite  religious  beliefs.  They  had  clear 
ideas  of  a  Godhead,  a  supreme  being  ruling  over  the  uni- 
verse. He  was  designated  the  "  Heavenly  King "  or 
"  Supreme  God,"  by  whose  decree  the  destiny  of  every 
creature  or  thing  was  supposed  to  be  fixed.  He  was  repre- 
sented as  both  merciful  and  just,  and,  while  rewarding  the 
good  and  punishing  the  wicked,  he  was  not  indisposed  to 
temper  justice  with  mercy.  Consequently,  he  was  feared, 
revered,  and  worshipped  by  all,  from  the  Emperor  down  to 
the  peasant.  Other  gods  were  admitted  and  worshipped ; 
but  they  were  regarded  as  ministers,  so  to  speak,  of  the 
Heavenly  King,  who  appointed  them  to  various  offices, 
much  in  the  same  way  as  the  Emperor  appointed  his 
officials  to  rule  over  his  empire.  This  kind  of  religious 
belief  persists  to  the  present  day,  especially  among  the 
educated  classes,  and  has  exerted  a  strong  and  beneficial 
influence  on  the  civilization  of  China,  in  spite  of  the  mystic, 
and  frequently  idolatrous,  doctrines  and  creeds  introduced 
by  the  so-called  Taoists  and  Buddhists  during  the  middle 
ages  of  Chinese  history. 

Social  and  moral. — The  Chinese  had  their  own  social  and 
moral  code  ages  ago  and  scores  of  centuries  have  passed 
away  without  any  material  change  in  it.  There  are  five 
degrees  of  relationship  recognized  by  the  code  and  each  de- 
gree has  its  prescribed  duties,  responsibilities  and  rights. 


76  CHINA 

First  comes  the  relationship  between  the  sovereign  and  his 
subjects.  The  former  is  charged  with  the  loving  and  be- 
nevolent care  of  his  people,  while  the  latter  are  enjoined  to 
obey  and  serve  their  king  with  loyalty  and  faithfulness. 
Parents  and  children  come  next.  "  Honour  thy  father  and 
thy  mother  "  was,  and  is,  as  much  a  divine  commandment 
with  the  Chinese  as  with  the  Hebrews;  and  under  the 
heading  of  u  filial  piety  "  all  the  offspring  of  a  family  are 
bound  by  an  inflexible  law  to  yield  obedience  and  love  to 
their  progenitors.  Parents  are  not  without  obligations  to 
their  children.  They  have  to  cherish,  educate,  and  main- 
tain them  and  to  provide  for  their  future  welfare.  It  may 
be  said  that  in  no  other  country  is  the  family-tie  held  more 
sacred  than  in  China.  The  next  relationship  is  that  of 
husbands  and  wives;  and  as  some  misapprehension  exists 
concerning  the  status  of  women  and  the  practice  of  polyg- 
amy in  China,  it  may  be  well  to  dwell  at  greater  length  on 
this  relationship.  A  husband  is  bound  to  treat  his  wife 
with  great  consideration  and  courtesy,  and  to  cherish  and 
provide  for  her,  while  the  wife  is  required  to  love  and  obey 
her  spouse.  A  man  is  permitted  by  law  to  have  one  wife 
only,  and  the  wife  one  husband.  It  is  incorrect  to  say  that 
the  Chinese  are  polygamous,  since  the  marriage  of  more 
than  one  wife  is  treated  as  an  offense  in  Statute-law,  and  is 
punishable  by  heavy  penalties,  and  the  second  marriage  is 
declared  null  and  void.  As  a  concession  to  human  weak- 
ness, however,  and  especially  for  the  humane  purpose  of 
providing  for  the  unfortunate  issue  of  unmarried  women 


THE  CIVILIZATION  OF  CHINA          77 

and  securing  the  continuation  of  the  family  line  on  the 
male  side,  the  law,  by  a  fiction,  recognizes  the  status  of 
children  born  in  concubinage,  and  admits  them  to  become 
members  of  the  families  as  if  they  were  born  in  wedlock. 
This  legal  indulgence  has,  in  course  of  time,  led  to  much 
abuse,  and  has  given  the  impression  that  a  Chinese  can 
have  as  many  wives  as  he  desires.  As  a  matter  of  fact, 
the  so-called  secondary  wife  is  not  recognized  by  law,  and 
has  no  legal  status  in  a  Chinese  family.  As  to  the  present 
position  of  women  there  is  also  some  misconception.  To 
those  who  are  well  acquainted  with  the  family  life  of  the 
Chinese,  the  position  of  Chinese  women  does  not  seem 
much  lower  than  that  now  attained  by  the  majority  of  their 
sisters  in  the  West.  Within  the  Chinese  home  their  reign 
is  supreme.  As  Empresses,  mothers,  wives  and  sisters 
they  usually  obtain  their  due  share  of  honour,  power, 
homage,  affection  and  respect.  Their  education,  even  in 
former  times,  was  not  entirely  neglected,  and,  besides  lit- 
erature, they  were  early  instructed  in  needlework  and 
household  management,  in  order  to  fit  them  to  become  ef- 
fective helpmates  of  their  future  husbands.  Since  the  be- 
ginning of  the  national  reform  movement  within  the  last 
few  years  many  public  as  well  as  private  schools  for  girls 
have  been  established.  The  custom  of  the  seclusion  of 
women  is  being  gradually  abandoned,  and  they  now  enjoy 
as  much  liberty  and  freedom  as  their  Western  sisters. 

The  relationship  between  the  older  and  younger  mem- 
bers of  the  family  forms  the  fourth  degree,  and  rules  have 


78  CHINA 

been  framed  for  the  regulation  of  their  conduct  towards 
each  other.  The  Chinese  exact  from  the  younger  mem- 
bers great  respect  and  reverence  for  their  elders,  who,  in 
turn,  are  enjoined  to  treat  their  juniors  with  kindness  and 
courtesy.  This  rule  is  enforced,  not  only  in  families  but 
in  all  the  village-communities  throughout  the  empire. 
Hence  in  every  hamlet  or  country-place  a  council  of  elders 
is  generally  elected  to  deal  with  local  affairs,  and  its  deci- 
sions on  matters  referred  to  it  have  usually  the  force  and 
authority  of  law.  The  officials  interfere  very  little  with 
their  findings,  and  thus  a  vast  amount  of  time  is  saved,  and 
good  order  maintained,  with  little  expense  and  trouble  to 
the  Government.  This  method  of  local  government  by 
the  gentry  and  elders  has  been,  and  is,  of  the  greatest  util- 
ity and  benefit.  It  forms  the  nucleus  of  local  self-govern- 
ment and  the  foundation  of  parliamentary  rule. 

The  last  and  fifth  degree  of  relationship  is  that  between 
friends  and  others  with  whom  one  associates,  and  the  re- 
quirements of  the  social  code  in  this  respect  are  cordiality, 
sincerity  and  faithfulness.  Honest  dealing  in  all  transac- 
tions is  secured  by  this  moral  law ;  very  few  Chinese  ex- 
cept those  of  the  lowest  order  dare  transgress  it.  For  this 
reason  the  commercial  integrity  of  the  Chinese  is  proverbial 
and  is  much  appreciated  by  foreigners  and  natives  alike. 

Political.  The  government  of  China  from  the  beginning 
of  its  history  until  now  has  been  patriarchal  in  character. 
The  theory  was  that  the  Emperor  was  the  sire,  having  re- 
ceived his  appointment  from  Heaven,  and  his  various  min- 


THE  CIVILIZATION  OF  CHINA          79 

isters  and  officers  were  the  responsible  elders  and  stewards 
of  the  various  departments,  provinces  and  districts.  For 
many  centuries  the  occupant  of  the  Imperial  throne  held 
his  high  office  for  life,  and  at  his  demise  or  retirement  some 
able  and  virtuous  minister  was  chosen  either  by  the  Emperor 
himself,  or  by  the  people,  or  their  representatives,  as  his 
successor.  As  the  government  was  for  the  benefit  of  the 
people,  the  Emperor  was  in  some  instances  compelled  to 
resign,  or  was  forcibly  removed,  if  his  reign  turned  to  their 
detriment.  The  history  of  China  contains  several  instances 
in  which  these  drastic  measures  were  taken  to  remove  un- 
just rulers.  In  1766  B.  c.  Ch'eng-t'ang,  founder  of  the 
Shang  dynasty,  banished  the  wicked  ruler  Kieh,  and  in 
1 1 22  B.  c.  Wu  Wang,  of  the  Chow  dynasty,  deposed  the 
cruel  King  Chou.  The  rare  occurrence  of  such  incidents 
were  due  to  the  comparative  soundness  of  the  government 
and  wisdom  of  the  rulers,  and  to  the  institution  of  a  pecul- 
iar system  of  strict  surveillance  and  mutual  responsibility 
among  all  classes  of  the  people,  which  had  the  effect  of  de- 
terring them  from  any  interference  in  government  affairs 
that  might  involve  them  and  their  relations  in  trouble. 
Since  the  advent  of  foreigners  into  China,  the  establishment 
of  foreign  consulates  in  different  ports,  and  the  acquaint- 
ance with  foreign  officials,  merchants  and  missionaries,  the 
Chinese  have  gradually  learned  the  more  liberal  systems  of 
government  prevalent  in  Europe  and  America.  As  a  con- 
sequence, within  the  last  few  years,  the  officials  and  the 
people  have  shown  an  eager  desire  for  reform  in  various 


8o  CHINA 

directions.  This  has  led  the  people  to  take  a  more  active 
interest  in  municipal  and  imperial  affairs,  and  in  some  in- 
stances they  have  not  hesitated  to  send  remonstrances 
against  governmental  measures  or  actions  which  they  looked 
upon  as  unwise  or  injurious.  A  few  years  ago,  in  com- 
pliance with  the  express  wishes  of  the  people,  imperial 
edicts  were  issued  promising  constitutional  government  and 
the  formation  of  a  national  parliament  in  ten  years.  Prep- 
arations are  being  made  for  carrying  out  this  promise.  Lo- 
cal assemblies,  composed  of  delegates  from  different  districts, 
have  been  formed  and  meetings  are  held  periodically  to 
discuss  matters  of  local  or  provincial  interest.  A  senate, 
composed  of  nobles,  officials  and  men  of  distinction  in 
science,  literature,  or  commerce  has  lately  been  established 
in  Peking.  The  formation  of  a  responsible  cabinet  has 
recently  been  urged  by  the  public  and  the  period  of  ten 
years  fixed  before  the  inauguration  of  a  parliament  has  been 
considered  too  long.  Yielding  to  public  opinion  and  to 
the  representations  of  a  majority  of  the  provincial  Viceroys 
and  Governors,  and  of  the  ministers  in  Peking,  the  Gov- 
ernment issued  an  Imperial  Edict  on  Nov.  4,  1910,  chang- 
ing the  date  for  the  establishment  of  the  Parliament  to  the 
fifth  year  of  Hsuant'ung,  the  year  1913,  and  decreeing  that 
the  official  system  be  reorganized,  a  cabinet  formed,  a  code 
of  constitutional  law  framed,  and  the  rules  and  regulations 
governing  Parliament  and  the  election  of  members  of  the 
Upper  and  Lower  Houses,  and  other  necessary  constitu- 
tional reforms,  be  prepared  and  put  into  force  before  the 


THE  CIVILIZATION  OF  CHINA          81 

assembling  of  Parliament.  Thus  it  is  hoped  that  in  two 
years'  time  a  constitutional  Government  and  a  Parliament 
will  be  in  existence  in  this  ancient  empire. 

Educational.  The  instruction  of  the  young  had  in  the 
earliest  times  engaged  the  attention  of  Chinese  educators. 
Besides  teaching  their  youths  polite  literature  and  other 
branches  of  learning,  they  gave  them  moral  training  of  a 
high  order.  The  curriculum  embraces  mathematics,  me- 
chanics, painting  and  music,  athletic  exercises,  such  as 
fencing,  horse-riding,  driving  and  archery,  etc.  As  a  re- 
sult the  Chinese  led  the  world  in  polite  literature,  in  invent- 
ive and  mechanical  genius  and  in  fine  arts.  But  in  the 
course  of  time  some  of  these  useful  subjects  were  neglected, 
or  omitted  from  the  curriculum,  and,  instead  of  improv- 
ing, the  educational  system  deteriorated  considerably. 
Since  the  national  reform  movement,  however,  the  education 
of  the  young  has  engrossed  the  serious  attention  of  officials 
and  people  and  energetic  steps  have  been  taken  to  improve 
the  educational  system  and  to  train  boys  and  girls  in  all 
useful  subjects  along  modern  lines. 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA 

H.  BOREL 

THE  awakening  of  China  to  national  conscious- 
ness is  a  process  suddenly  excited  by  the  thunder 
of  Japanese  guns  after  a  long  period  of  silent 
brooding,  and  it  is  beyond  the  pale  of  possibility  to  estimate 
the  immense  influence  it  may  have  on  the  evolution  of  the 
whole  world  in  the  domain  of  politics,  economics,  science 
and  art. 

Until  a  few  years  ago  there  was,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  no 
Chinese  people,  in  the  sense  of  a  single  conception  com- 
prehending all  Chinese.  China  was  an  unwieldy,  inert 
mass  of  heterogeneous  provinces  and  peoples,  perhaps  only 
kept  together  by  the  difficulty  of  falling  asunder.  When 
in  1894  the  war  in  the  north  was  waged  against  Japan,  the 
South  Chinese  in  the  Fuhkien  Province  did  not  concern 
themselves  with  it,  and  it  left  the  Chinese  in  the  colonies 
beyond  the  seas  as  cold  as  a  war  between  Bulgaria  and 
Servia  might  have  done.  Up  to  the  time  of  the  Russo- 
Japanese  War  I  hardly  ever  heard  any  Chinaman  in  Singa- 
pore or  Batavia  express  the  slightest  interest  in  what  might 
happen  in  Chinese  politics.  A  Chinese  emigrant  in  the 
English,  American,  or  Dutch  colonies  might  have  ancestral 
tombs  or  prayer-houses  somewhere  in  China  which  might 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA  83 

bind  him  to  a  certain  spot  in  the  land  of  his  early  life,  but 
his  interest  was  only  associated  with  that  particular  place 
of  his  origin,  not  with  the  native  country,  conceived  as  a 
national  unit. 

A  Chinese  from  Shanghai  was,  moreover,  as  distinct 
from  one  hailing  from  Canton  as  a  Spaniard  from  a  French- 
man, and  the  same  applies  to  a  Chinese  from  Foochow,  as 
compared  with  one  from  Peking,  etc.,  etc.  One  usually 
speaks  of  Chinese  "  dialects,"  but  "  languages  "  would  be 
the  more  correct  expression.  A  Chinaman  from  the  north 
could  not  understand  one  from  the  south ;  a  domestic  from 
Amoy  could  not  talk  to  a  tramping  tailor  from  Shanghai. 
China  was  a  heterogeneous  mass  of  peoples  who  had  only 
one  tie  in  common — the  written  language,  but  this  amounts 
to  no  more  than  do  the  Roman  numbers  in  Europe  to-day. 
The  number  X.,  for  instance,  is  the  same  all  over  Europe, 
but  the  Englishman  reads  it  as  Ten,  the  Frenchman  as  Dix, 
the  Italian  as  Died,  and  so  on.  In  addition  there  is  the 
so-called  Chinese  of  the  Mandarins,  the  Kuan  hua  or 
Ching  yin.  This  language  was  spoken  more  or  less  gen- 
erally in  the  north,  but  in  the  south  only  by  high  digni- 
taries and  by  highly  cultured  literates.  Its  slightly  differ- 
ent Pekingese  variety  was  the  language  of  the  Court  and 
of  diplomats,  but  in  the  south  it  was  not  nearly  so  much 
used  as  French  is  in  the  more  refined  sets  of  Europeans. 
Only  a  select  few  of  the  officials  and  the  literates  knew  the 
Chinese  of  the  Mandarins  ;  the  overwhelming  large  propor- 
tion of  people,  especially  in  the  south,  did  not. 


84  CHINA 

A  single  popular  language— one  that  could  be  used 
among  all  the  civilized  middle  classes  from  Canton  to 
Shanghai,  from  Peking  to  Foochow  and  Amoy — did  not 
exist.  The  Chinese  of  various  southern  provinces  and 
districts  of  China  remained  foreigners  to  each  other ;  they 
did  not  feel  themselves  as  belonging  to  one  brotherhood,  as 
the  possessors  of  one  common  treasure — the  national  ver- 
nacular by  which  the  national  mind  may  give  utterance  to 
its  most  sacred  and  intimate  sentiments. 

It  is  for  this  reason  that  I  never  anticipated  the  possibil- 
ity of  this  conception  suddenly  emerging  into  a  reality — 
one  Chinese  nation,  one  Chinese  language,  as  there  is  one 
English  nation  and  one  English  language. 

But  the  roaring  thunder  of  the  Japanese  guns  over 
Chinese  seas  and  the  plains  and  mountains  of  Chinese 
Manchuria  roused  into  activity  the  latent  forces  slumber- 
ing in  the  heterogeneous,  indolent  mass.  Exactly  how  it 
came  about  no  one  really  knows.  At  the  back  of  the 
world's  history  mystical,  spiritual  powers  are  at  work  un- 
seen, raising  and  lowering  the  rhythm  of  those  great  move- 
ments of  the  world  wherein  nations  and  dynasties  rise  to 
their  culmination  and  then  fall  into  decay. 

It  was  as  if  a  magnetic  current,  an  electric  vibration, 
passed  through  the  body  of  this  gigantic  colossus,  this  mag- 
nificent, huge,  primeval  creature  of  prehistoric  periods,  ap- 
parently dead  but  in  reality  only  slumbering  through  the 
centuries,  on  whose  back  foreign  parasites  had  settled  down, 
stinging  and  wounding  and  nesting  in  its  skin.  Suddenly 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA  85 

the  heavy  thick  eyelids  are  half  opened,  a  tremour  of  new 
life  shivers  through  the  unwieldy  frame,  the  thick  flabby 
skin  contracts,  the  tremendous  legs  make  the  earth  resound ; 
and  with  a  cry  reverberating  through  the  whole  world,  it 
hails  a  new  day. 

Here  we  had  not  only  Japan  defeating  Russia  on  the 
plains  of  Manchuria,  but  a  fragment  of  the  East — the 
coloured — shaking  off  the  West — the  white — which  reeled 
under  the  repulse.  This  terrific  occurrence  rang  in  a  new 
era  for  the  East,  and  the  Chinese,  the  Hindu,  the  Mo- 
hammedan, awoke  trembling,  divining,  with  that  Eastern 
intuition  which  is  like  second-sight,  the  hardly  credible  pos- 
sibilities of  the  future.  And  then  the  abstract  idea,  so 
ultra-realistic  because  it  is  abstract,  according  to  Eastern 
wisdom,  the  idea  of  "  the  East  for  the  East,"  born  in 
the  gore  of  battle-fields  and  ensanguined  seas,  saw  the 
light. 

It  is  the  idea  now  hovering  over  hundreds  of  millions  of 
souls  from  Benares  to  Peking,  from  Calcutta  to  Batavia, 
and  finding  an  echo  far  away  in  the  hearts  of  all  who  are 
coloured,  yellow  and  brown — in  farthest  America,  in  Cape- 
town and  the  Transvaal,  in  Australia,  in  Alexandria,  in 
Constantinople. 

Europe  is  not  yet  immediately  threatened  by  the  Yellow 
Peril  of  bayonets,  air-ships,  and  armoured  cruisers;  but 
there  is  the  much  greater,  much  stronger — because  spiritual 
and  mystical — danger  of  the  Yellow  Idea;  indestructible 
and  irresistible  like  all  spiritual  forces  in  the  history  of  the 


86  CHINA 

universe,  mightier  than  the  thickest  armour-plates,  more  far- 
reaching  than  the  monsters  of  Krupp  or  Creusot.  One 
can  level  to  the  ground  by  heavy  artillery  any  armoured 
fort,  destroy  Dreadnoughts  by  mines  and  torpedoes,  but  the 
spiritual  idea  fermenting  among  hundreds  of  millions  can- 
not be  exterminated  by  material  weapons. 

Much  has  already  been  written  about  railways  and  con- 
cessions, about  loans  and  the  exploitation  of  mines.  Many 
have  pondered  and  meditated  on  the  reform  of  the  Chinese 
people  and  the  awakening  of  the  Young  Chinese.  But  it 
has  not  been  clearly  understood  that  what  is  really  happen- 
ing in  China  at  the  present  moment  is  merely  the  outward 
symptom  of  a  single  inward  idea  arising  in  Eastern  Asia,  a 
pulse  of  the  rhythm  in  which  the  whole  world  moves. 
European  diplomacy  and  European  sinology  ought  to 
understand  in  the  first  place  that  any  appreciation  of  the 
Young  Chinese  movement  must  start  from  the  point  of 
view  that  the  idea,  "  the  East  for  the  East,"  is  essentially 
spiritual,  even  mystical,  and  will  not  at  all  carry  with  it 
only  the  material  movements  of  economical  and  trading  in- 
terests. It  involves  immensely  more  than  social  reform 
and  the  expansion  of  trade.  China  with  her  four  hundred 
millions  is  now  moving  upward  in  the  world's  course,  be- 
cause in  future  she  will  work  mightily  towards  the  spiritual 
and  intellectual  progress  of  all  humanity. 

Stated  briefly,  the  beginnings  of  reform,  as  far  as  out- 
ward signs  go,  were  as  follows  :  After  the  defeat  of  the 
big,  hairy  Russian  by  the  small  brave  Japanese,  China  be- 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA  87 

gan  to  realize  her  own  latent  power ;  she  began  to  consider 
how  it  came  about  that  this  small  David  had  been  able  to 
slay  this  gigantic  Goliath.  It  was  as  simple  as  the  problem 
of  Columbus's  egg,  but  it  took  centuries  after  centuries  for 
China  to  see  this  egg  standing  on  its  end. 

About  three  years  ago  I,  with  a  Chinese  friend,  visited  a 
private  Chinese  school  somewhere  in  Java  and  opened  the 
desk  of  an  urchin  scarcely  ten  years  old.  I  picked  up  his 
exercise  book  of  compositions,  and  what  I  read  there  I  may 
copy  here  without  any  comment,  so  exactly  does  it  reflect 
the  actual  situation.  He  wrote  :  "  Small  Japan  defeated 
big  China.  Afterwards  small  Japan  defeated  big  Russia. 
How  was  it  able  to  accomplish  this  ?  You  think  by  ships 
and  soldiers.  But  that  is  not  so.  It  defeated  Russia  by  its 
knowledge,  by  its  education.  It  defeated  the  stupid  Chinese 
and  Russian  soldiers,  because  education  is  so  good  in  Japan; 
because  the  Japanese  people  are  instructed  in  the  sciences 
and  are  no  longer  ignorant.  There  is  hardly  a  Japanese 
soldier  who  cannot  read  and  write.  China  is  much  bigger 
than  Japan  and  much  bigger  than  Russia  or  any  empire  of 
Europe,  and  it  has  more  than  four  hundred  millions  of  in- 
habitants. When  these  people  are  instructed  and  know, 
China  will  be  much  more  powerful  than  little  Japan  or  the 
strongest  peoples  of  Europe.  Therefore  the  first  thing 
China  wants  is  instruction.  It  must  start  with  that.  Then 
China  will  become  the  first  empire  of  the  world." 

This  short  essay  of  a  ten-year-old  child  from  the  Dutch 
colony  offers  a  striking  instance  of  what  now  fills  the  Chi- 


88  CHINA 

nese  popular  mind,  of  what  is  taught  in  Chinese  schools. 
Education  has  been  reformed  all  over  China  and — perhaps 
forced  upon  it  by  public  opinion — education  is  now  the 
foremost  care  of  the  Chinese  Government.  It  was  ini- 
tiated by  an  impulse  from  Japan.  Japanese  schoolmasters 
opened  in  China  the  first  modern  Elementary  School  and 
were  followed  by  Chinese  scholars  who  had  studied  in 
Japan.  Afterwards  the  Government  took  the  official  lead 
and  had  schools  erected  as  far  as  possible  all  over  China. 
The  general  curriculum  of  these  schools  is  formed  on  a 
Japanese  model,  this  again  being  an  imitation  of  a  European 
one  rendered  suitable  to  Eastern  conditions.  The  present 
governmental  programme  contains  a  promise  of  compulsory 
education.  Educational  appliances,  originally  from  Japan, 
are  now  being  printed  and  manufactured  chiefly  in  China. 
There  is  a  separate  Ministry  for  Education  established  in 
Peking  and  inspectors  of  High  Schools  and  Grammar 
Schools  are  appointed  by  this  department.  A  few  schools 
have  already  been  opened  and  a  larger  number  are  provided 
for.  There  are  still  not  a  few  Japanese  teachers  in  China, 
but  there  is  a  growing  tendency  to  substitute  for  them  Chi- 
nese who  have  studied  in  Japan.  And  in  China  itself  Pre- 
paratory Schools  are  being  erected  for  the  education  of 
elementary  teachers. 

But  the  most  important  thing  is  in  all  these  schools  the 
Chinese  of  the  Mandarins  (Ching  yin)  is  being  taught. 
Why  ?  Because — and  here  lies  the  central  importance  of 
the  Chinese  education  question,  wherever  there  are  Chinese 


THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA  89 

settlements — because  the  awakened  national  sentiment  has 
discerned  that  unity  of  language  is  indispensable  to  national 
unity.  What  is  at  present  possible  to  a  small  part  only  of 
the  present  generation  in  China  will  be  possible  to  the 
whole  of  the  next  generation  now  attending  the  Elementary 
Schools :  the  Chinese  people  will  speak  one  common  lan- 
guage— that  of  the  Mandarins. 

Consequently  the  Chinese  of  the  Mandarins  has  become 
the  greatest  good  of  modern  China,  because  of  all  means  it 
is  the  only  one,  the  saving  measure  by  which  unity  of  State 
and  nation  can  be  accomplished.  It  is  impossible  to  pre- 
dict what  may  be  the  consequences  of  this  reformed  ele- 
mentary education,  soon  to  be  followed  by  High  Schools. 
The  scope  is  so  vast,  so  comprehensive.  Everything  per- 
taining to  modern  civilization  is  praised  and  explained  in 
the  reading-books  of  these  schools  of  the  people.  A  few 
years  ago  telegraphs,  railways,  telephones  were  of  evil 
origin,  sorceries  of  foreign  devils,  temples  and  tombs  were 
obstacles  in  the  way  of  tracks  and  roads.  At  the  present 
moment  railways,  telegraphs,  telephones,  balloons,  radio- 
telegraphy,  everything  that  is  modern  and  customary  in 
Europe,  is  expounded  in  the  national  schools  as  the  indis- 
pensable means  to  civilize  China  and  put  it  on  the  same 
footing  as  the  European  States.  Even  Buddhist  and  Taoist 
temples  are  everywhere  being  equipped  as  schools — and  it 
is  well  to  notice  the  symbolic  significance  thereof.  Idols 
are  removed  from  temples:  modern  science  walks  in. 
This  single  fact  means  the  complete  mental  revolution  of  a 


90  CHINA 

people  of  over  four  hundred  millions  ;  and  the  aspect  of  the 
entire  world  will  be  altered  by  it. 

Morever,  thousands  of  Chinese  students  go  to  Japan  and 
America — a  small  minority  come  to  Europe  as  well ;  they 
imbibe  there  the  milk  of  modern  science  and  new  ideas  and 
return  to  China,  somewhat  conceited  and  overbearing,  but 
full  of  a  sublime  ideal :  to  devote  their  lives  to  the  educa- 
tion of  their  native  country.  Amongst  them  there  are 
numerous  well-to-do  people  who  become  schoolmasters 
without  taking  any  pay,  from  pure  love  of  their  ideal,  and 
who  disseminate  knowledge  as  the  apostles  disseminated 
love. 

The  Chinese  have  always  been  abused  as  inferior,  as 
dirty,  cowardly,  and  cruel,  and  particularly  as  materialistic 
and  egotistical.  Missionaries,  and  even  learned  professors 
who  ought  to  know  better,  joined  in,  and  (as  happens 
everywhere  through  mistaking  external  deteriorations  for 
the  original,  ancient,  internal  essence)  they  described  the 
Chinese  as  a  nation  of  heathen,  full  of  superstition  and 
witchcraft,  steeped  in  materialism  and  egotism,  too  much 
debased  to  feel  devotion  to  high  ideals.  Only  a  few  have 
always  known  that  this  characterization  was  untruthful. 
Those  who  had  thoroughly  got  into  touch  with  Chinese 
literature  and  philosophy,  not  as  dry-as-dust  philologues 
but  as  artists  and  philosophers,  knew  better  what  was  the 
real  essence  of  the  Chinese  national  soul. 


F 


WHAT  HAS  AWAKENED  CHINA 

LORD  WILLIAM  GASCOTNE-CECIL 

OR  centuries  China  has  been  the  land  that  never 
moved.  It  had  a  political  history  full  of  wars  and 
bloodshed,  of  intrigue  and  murder ;  periods  of  pros- 
perity and  enlightenment ;  periods  of  darkness  and  desola- 
tion ;  but  the  country  remained  essentially  the  same  country. 
There  might  be  some  small  alteration  in  its  customs,  but 
China  was  distinctly  unprogressive.  And  everybody  who 
knew  China  ten  or  fifteen  years  ago  was  prepared  to  proph- 
esy that  it  would  continue  to  remain  unprogressive. 

Many  a  missionary  speaks  of  the  China  that  he  used  to 
know  as  a  very  different  land  from  the  China  of  to-day. 
It  used  to  be  a  sort  of  Rip  Van  Winkle  land  that  had  slept 
a  thousand  years,  and  showed  every  sign  of  remaining 
asleep  for  another  thousand.  Mrs.  Arnold  Foster  told  us 
that  when  she  first  came  to  Wuchang  she  used  to  see 
the  soldiers  dressed  mediaevally,  learning  to  make  faces 
to  inspire  terror  in  the  hearts  of  the  adversary. 
Monseigneur  Jarlin,  the  head  of  the  French  mission  in 
Peking,  described  the  China  of  olden  times  by  saying  that 
in  his  young  days  all  Chinamen  had  a  rooted  contempt  for 
everything  Western.  Theirs  was  the  only  civilized  land. 
The  West  was  the  land  of  barbarism.  Now,  he  added,  the 


92  CHINA 

positions  are  reversed ;  every  Chinaman  despises  China, 
and  is  convinced  that  from  the  West  comes  the  light  of 
civilization.  Archdeacon  Moule  tells  how  he  sailed  out 
to  China  in  a  sailing  ship,  and  found  a  land  absolutely 
indifferent  to  the  existence  of  the  West — more  ignorant  of 
the  West  than  the  West  was  of  the  East,  and  that,  when 
he  was  young,  was  saying  a  great  deal ;  and  now  he  finds 
himself  in  a  land  that  has  telephones  and  motor  cars  and 
takes  an  active  interest  in  flying-machines. 

China  has  fundamentally  altered.  She  used  to  be  abso- 
lutely the  most  conservative  land  in  the  world.  Now  she 
is  a  land  which  is  seeing  so  many  radical  changes  that 
a  missionary  said,  when  I  asked  him  a  question  about 
China :  "  You  must  not  rely  on  me,  for  I  left  China 
three  months  ago,  so  that  what  I  say  may  be  out  of  date." 

China  is  now  progressive;  yes,  Young  China  believes 
intensely  in  progress,  with  an  optimistic  spirit  which  re- 
minds the  onlooker  more  of  the  French  pre-Revolution 
spirit  than  of  anything  else.  And  this  intense  belief  in 
progress  shows  itself  at  every  turn ;  the  Yamen  runner  has 
become  a  policeman,  towns  are  having  the  benefit  of  water- 
works, schools  are  being  opened  everywhere,  railways 
cover  the  land.  .  One  may  well  ask  what  has  accomplished 
this  change,  what  has  awakened  China  ? 

Perhaps,  like  many  other  great  events  in  history,  this 
change  of  opinion  in  China  should  be  attributed  to  more 
than  one  cause.  There  are  two  chief  causes.  One  may 
be  small,  but  it  is  not  insignificant;  the  other  is  certainly 


WHAT  HAS  AWAKENED  CHINA         93 

great  and  obvious.  The  less  appreciated  factor  that  is 
causing  the  regeneration  of  China  is  Christianity ;  the 
larger  and  more  obvious  factor  is  the  new  national  move- 
ment. 

The  cause  of  the  new  national  movement  was  the  sense 
of  humiliation  brought  about  by  political  events  culminat- 
ing in  the  battle  of  Mukden,  where  a  flagrant  act  of  inso- 
lent contempt  for  the  laws  of  neutrality  was  felt  all  the 
more  deeply  because  China  had  to  submit  to  that  which  she 
was  powerless  to  resist. 

China,  confident  in  the  number  of  her  people,  which 
reached  to  a  quarter  of  the  world's  population,  at- 
tempted to  assert  her  rights  of  suzerainty  over  Korea 
against  Japan.  She  had  not  realized  then  that  Japan  was 
no  longer  an  Eastern  Power,  where  knights  with  two- 
handed  swords  did  deeds  of  valour  and  won  for  themselves 
everlasting  renown.  And  when  at  Ping-yang  the  armies 
met,  the  Chinese  general  ascended  a  hill  that  he  might 
direct  the  armies  of  the  Celestial  Empire  with  a  fan.  He 
conceived  the  battle  to  be  merely  a  small  affair,  where  a 
fan  could  be  seen  by  all  the  officers  engaged.  The  result 
was,  of  course,  that  the  German-trained  Japanese  army  had 
a  very  easy  victory.  The  war  ended  in  the  taking  of  Port 
Arthur  by  the  Japanese,  and  China  was  in  the  humiliating 
position  of  having  to  appeal  to  Western  countries  to  secure 
her  territory. 

So  far,  however,  the  sting  of  her  humiliation  gave  to 
China  a  sense  of  resentment  against  all  foreigners,  rather 


94  CHINA 

than  a  sense  of  repentance  for  her  own  shortcomings,  and 
the  missionaries  found  hostility  to  their  work  in  every 
part  of  China.  That  hostility  resulted  in  the  murder  of 
two  German  Roman  Catholic  missionaries  in  Shantung. 
The  well-known  action  in  Germany  in  demanding  a  ces- 
sion of  territory  as  a  punishment  for  this  murder  may 
have  been  a  good  stroke  of  policy,  but  it  has  brought  but 
little  honour  either  to  Germany  or  to  Christianity.  In  fact 
it  may  be  regarded  as  a  most  regrettable  action  from  a  mis- 
sionary point  of  view,  for  it  convinced  the  Chinese  that  the 
missionary  was  but  a  part  of  the  civil  administration  of  a 
hostile  country,  and  that  if  China  was  to  be  preserved 
from  the  foreigner,  missionaries  must  be  induced  to  leave 
the  country.  A  deep  feeling  of  national  resentment  spread 
over  the  land  which  was  encouraged  by  some  in  authority. 
The  direct  connection  between  Government  patronage 
of  the  anti-foreign  movement  and  the  German  occupation 
of  Kianchau  can  be  deduced  from  the  fact  that  the  Gov- 
ernor who  was  responsible  for  the  awful  murders  in  Shansi 
had  been  Governor  of  Shantung  when  Germany  took 
Kianchau. 

The  result  of  this  bitter  feeling  was  the  creation  of  a 
secret  and  patriotic  society  which  concealed  the  nature  of 
its  propaganda  under  a  name  with  a  double  meaning.  The 
Boxer  Society  was,  as  its  name  suggests,  apparently  an 
athletic  society — a  society  which  had  for  its  object  the  en- 
couragement of  the  art  of  self-defense.  But  the  name  had 
another  signification.  Its  real  object,  as  a  Chinaman  ex- 


WHAT  HAS  AWAKENED  CHINA        95 

plained  to  me,  was  to  "  knock  the  heads  of  the  foreigners 
off."  It  was  a  religious  as  well  as  a  political  movement, 
however.  It  had  its  prophets,  who  did  wonders  or  were 
thought  to  do  them,  and  its  disciples  were  believed  to  be 
invulnerable  to  any  Western  weapon.  It  protested  against 
the  movement  towards  Western  ideas,  which  it  regarded  as 
immoral ;  it  condemned  and  destroyed  everything  Western, 
from  straw  hats  and  cigarettes  to  mission  houses  and  rail- 
ways ;  its  disciples  believed  that  the  spirits  that  defend 
China  were  angry  at  the  introduction  of  Western  things, 
that  they  were  withholding  the  rain  so  necessary  to  the  light 
loess  land  of  that  district,  and  that  the  only  way  they  could 
be  propitiated  was  by  the  sacrifice  of  a  Western  life  or  by 
the  destruction  of  a  Western  building.  One  of  the  things 
that  precipitated  the  siege  of  Peking  was  the  apparent  suc- 
cess of  such  an  action.  In  pursuance  of  their  faith,  the 
Boxers  set  a  light  to  the  rail-head  station  of  the  half-made 
Hankow-Peking  railway,  a  place  called  Pao-ting-fu ;  the 
station  was  a  mere  wooden  barrack  and  blazed  up  merrily 
with  an  imposing  column  of  smoke ;  hardly  had  the  smoke 
reached  the  heavens,  when  the  sky  was  overcast  with  heavy 
thunder-clouds,  and  in  a  short  time  the  thirsty  land  re- 
ceived the  long-wished-for  rain  and  the  Boxer  prophets 
pointed  with  sinister  effect  to  the  heavenly  confirmation  of 
their  doctrine. 

With  the  relief  of  Peking  the  Boxer  Society  fell ;  but 
the  popular  view  was  not  that  Boxer  teaching  was  false, 
but  that  the  spirits  behind  Western  religion  were  stronger 


96  CHINA 

than  those  behind  Boxerdom.  So  one  of  the  immediate 
results  of  the  fall  of  the  Boxers  was  to  establish  the  spirit- 
ual prestige  of  Christianity  ;  the  second  result  was  to  in- 
spire the  Chinese  with  a  respect  for  the  military  power  of 
the  foreigner.  The  Boxers  had  failed,  the  foreign  powers 
had  taken  Peking,  the  Son  of  Heaven  had  become  a  fugi- 
tive ;  all  this  was  gall  and  wormwood  to  the  Chinaman. 
The  sack  of  Peking  was  especially  felt,  both  because  of 
the  wanton  destruction  that  was  committed — one  informant 
told  me  he  saw  a  vase  worth  £200  smashed  into  a  thousand 
atoms  by  a  drunken  soldier — and  because  the  enlightened 
Chinese  knew  very  well  that  no  civilized  city  is  sacked  at 
the  present  time,  and  that  they  were  being  treated  as  no 
other  race  is  now  treated. 

The  bitterness  of  their  next  humiliation  made  them 
ready  to  learn  as  they  had  never  been  before  in  the  whole 
of  their  history,  and  events  provided  them  with  teachers 
who  taught  them  that  the  cause  of  this  humiliation  was 
their  refusal  to  accept  Western  ideas,  and  that  if  they 
would  maintain  their  independence  they  must  learn  the  art 
of  war  from  their  conquerors. 

After  the  siege  of  Peking  came  the  Russo-Japanese  war. 
The  Russians  had  long  been  known  and  feared  by  the 
Chinese ;  they  were  to  the  Chinese  mind  the  embodiment 
of  the  warlike  and  bloodthirsty  spirit  of  the  West;  they 
were  hated  for  their  cruelty  and  feared  for  their  prowess. 
The  awful  story  of  the  massacre  of  Blagovestchensk  in 
1900  was  still  present  to  the  popular  mind.  The  story  was 


WHAT  HAS  AWAKENED  CHINA        97 

this.  The  Amur  divides  China  from  Siberia.  When  the 
Boxer  movement  broke  out  the  Russians  required  all  the 
Chinese  to  go  to  their  side  of  the  river  j  but  with  sinister 
intent,  they  removed  all  the  boats,  so  that  no  one  could 
cross.  The  Chinese  pointed  this  out,  and  the  respectable 
merchants  of  the  town  presented  a  petition  saying  they  were 
ready  to  obey  the  Russian  Government  in  everything,  but 
without  the  boats  they  could  not  do  so  j  but  the  Russians 
insisted  that  boats  or  no  boats,  they  must  cross  the  Amur; 
they  protested  but  in  vain  ;  a  half-circle  was  formed  round 
them  by  the  soldiery,  and  the  whole  Chinese  population  of 
the  city  was  driven  into  the  river  at  the  point  of  the  bayonet. 

The  Japanese  were  also  well  known  to  the  Chinese  ; 
they  had  been  till  lately,  when  the  Western  movement  had 
altered  everything  in  Japan,  their  pupils  in  civilization. 
The  Japanese  believe  in  Confucius,  used  Chinese  charac- 
ters, worshipped  in  Buddhist  temples,  sacrificed  to  ances- 
tors, in  fact  were  in  Chinese  estimation  a  civilized  race, 
though  inferior  of  course  to  themselves. 

When  these  two  antagonists  met  in  Manchuria,  the  war 
could  not  fail  to  make  a  deep  impression  on  China.  To 
begin  with,  it  was  an  insult  surpassing  that  of  the  sack  of 
Peking  to  the  Chinese  amour  propre  to  have  the  war  carried 
on  in  Manchuria :  Russia  and  Japan  were  disputing  over 
Korea  and  both  nations  were  at  peace  with  China.  Russia 
might  have  invaded  Japan ;  Japan  might  have  invaded 
Russia,  or  both  might  have  met  in  Korea,  but  what  they 
did  was  to  select  a  province  of  a  neutral  State  and  decide 


98  CHINA 

that  there  should  be  the  scene  of  conflict.  What  made 
this  more  striking  was  that  they  agreed  to  respect  the  neu- 
trality of  China ;  in  fact  they  selected  their  battle-ground 
with  the  same  equanimity  as  if  China  and  her  natural 
rights  did  not  exist. 

But  the  deepest  impression  made  on  the  Chinese  was  by 
the  victory  of  the  Eastern  over  the  Western.  The  Japa- 
nese demonstrated  that  there  was  no  essential  inferiority 
of  the  East  to  the  West,  and  that  when  an  Eastern  race 
adopted  Western  military  methods  it  proved  itself  superior 
to  the  most  powerful  of  the  Western  races.  This  was  the 
lesson  the  battle  of  Mukden  taught  the  Chinese,  and  which 
convinced  the  anti-foreign  party  in  China  that,  however 
much  they  might  hate  the  foreigner,  they  must  adopt  West- 
ern methods  if  they  would  retain  their  independence.  The 
result  was  that  the  progressive  and  anti-foreign  parties 
found  themselves  at  one.  Both  agreed  that  Western  ideas 
were  necessary.  The  first  because  they  believed  in  West- 
ern progress ;  the  second  because  they  felt  that  the  only 
way  to  preserve  China  from  the  hated  foreigner  was  to 
learn  the  secret  of  his  military  power.  The  first  thing 
to  be  done  was  to  study  Western  education,  and  then  they 
could  hope  to  hold  their  own  against  the  Western  races, 
as  Japan  had  more  than  held  her  own  against  the  Russians. 

I  believe  the  battle  of  Mukden  will  prove  one  of  the 
turning-points  in  the  history  of  the  world.  Few  of  us 
have  any  conception  of  the  bitterness  of  the  humiliation 
of  China.  People  speak  of  Russia  as  having  been  humili- 


WHAT  HAS  AWAKENED  CHINA        99 

ated ;  but  my  experience  is  that  the  Russians  looked  at  the 
whole  question  as  a  colonial  war  in  which  a  bungling  Gov- 
ernment embroiled  their  country — a  war  which,  if  it 
demonstrated  the  incapacity  of  their  officers,  proved  the 
courage  of  their  soldiers.  But  the  humiliation  of  China 
was  intense.  When  one  remembers  the  position  that  the 
Emperor  occupies  in  China;  when  one  also  remembers 
the  reverential  feeling  that  exists  towards  ancestors,  one 
realizes  what  it  must  have  meant  to  the  Chinamen  that  the 
site  of  the  tombs  of  their  Emperors  should  have  been  the 
scene  of  that  titanic  struggle  between  the  East  and  the 
West.  But  the  result  of  that  humiliation  was  to  burn  in 
the  lesson  that  Japan  had  taken  the  right  course,  and  that, 
however  hateful  were  Western  ways,  they  were  a  necessity, 
and  that  every  lover  of  China  must  do  his  best  to  introduce 
them  into  the  Empire. 

Of  course  there  are  many  Chinamen — nay,  I  should 
think  a  vast  majority — who  intend  to  preserve  to  China  the 
essential  points  of  the  Confucian  civilization ;  they  mean 
to  accept  Western  ideas  only  in  so  far  as  they  are  necessary 
to  struggle  against  the  West.  Some,  no  doubt,  definitely 
admire  the  West,  but  most  are  anxious  for  a  compromise ; 
they  want  to  preserve  China  with  its  customs,  with  its 
essential  thought,  but  to  strengthen  it  by  foreign  knowl- 
edge and  a  foreign  military  system.  The  exact  de- 
gree of  what  should  be  preserved  in  China  and  what 
should  be  destroyed  and  replaced  by  Western  innova- 
tions differs  according  to  the  age  and  the  temperament 


ioo  CHINA 

of  the  thinkers,  but  the  principle  is  most  generally  accepted 
— Western  thought  must  be  grafted  on  to  Eastern  civili- 
zation. When  we  remember  the  size  of  China  we  may 
well  ask  ourselves  what  effect  this  policy  will  have  on  the 
rest  of  the  world.  We  have  at  present  a  period  of  reflection, 
for  how  long  we  cannot  tell.  The  task  of  welding  East 
and  West  into  one  whole  is  in  practice  proving  difficult, 
and  at  present  failure  is  very  often  the  result ;  but  with 
Japan  as  a  successful  example,  and  with  the  threat  of 
national  extinction  and  foreign  domination  before  them, 
the  Chinese  can  never  give  up  the  effort  j  and  whatever 
the  exact  result  may  be,  I  think  one  may  assert  without 
rashness  that  not  only  will  it  fundamentally  alter  the  whole 
of  China,  but  through  China  affect  the  whole  world. 


THE  CITIES  OF  CHINA  . 

LORD  WILLIAM  GASCOTNE-CECIL 

NOWHERE  is  the  transitional  period  through 
which  China  is  passing  more  obvious  than  in 
the  cities  of  China ;  many  towns  are  still  com- 
pletely Chinese,  but  as  you  approach  the  ports  you  find 
more  and  more  Western  development.  The  contrast  be- 
tween towns  is  extremely  marked.  Shanghai  or  Tientsin 
are  Western  towns  and  centres  of  civilization ;  the  differ- 
ence between  them  and  such  towns  as  Hangchow  or  Ichang 
is  very  great.  The  true  Chinese  city  is  not  without  its 
beauty — in  fact,  in  many  ways  it  is  a  beautiful  and  wonder- 
ful place.  But  to  appreciate  it  eyes  only  are  wanted,  and 
a  nose  is  a  misfortune.  The  streets  are  extremely  narrow 
passages,  which  are  bordered  on  either  side  by  most  attract- 
ive shops,  particularly  in  the  main  street.  The  stranger 
longs  to  stop  and  buy  things  as  he  goes  along,  but  the  dif- 
ficulty is  that  it  takes  so  much  time ;  he  must  either  be 
prepared  to  pay  twice  the  value  of  the  things  he  wants  or 
to  spend  hours  in  negotiation.  There  is  one  curious  excep- 
tion to  this  rule ;  the  silk  guild  at  Shanghai  does  not  allow 
its  members  to  bargain,  and  therefore  in  the  silk  shop  the 
real  price  is  told  at  once. 

The  shopkeepers  are  charming,  and  there  are  numbers 


102  CHINA 

of  salesmen — salesmen  who  do  not  mind  taking  any  amount 
of  trouble  to  please.  It  is  delightful,  if  insidious,  to  go 
into  those  shops ;  and  one  can  well  believe  that  if  a 
Chinese  silk  shop  were  opened  in  London,  and  silk  sold 
at  Chinese  prices,  the  shop  would  have  plenty  of  custom- 
ers. The  quality  of  Chinese  silks  far  exceeds  that  of  the- 
silks  of  the  West.  A  Chinese  gentleman  mentioned  as  an 
example  of  this  superiority  that  one  of  his  gowns  was 
made  of  French  silk  and  that  it  was  torn  and  spoilt  after 
two  or  three  years ;  but  that  he  had  had  gowns  of  Chinese 
silk  for  twenty  years  or  more  which  were  just  as  good  as 
on  the  day  he  had  bought  them,  and  that  he  had  only  put 
them  on  one  side,  because  the  fashions  in  men's  garments 
change  in  China  as  they  do  elsewhere  for  ladies.  The 
same  gentleman  related  many  interesting  things  about  the 
silk  trade.  This  is  much  more  like  the  guilds  in  mediaeval 
Europe  than  anything  that  we  have  nowadays,  and  this  is 
why  China  is  not  exporting  more  silk  than  she  is  at  present. 
These  silk  guilds  to  a  certain  extent  prevent  the  Chinese 
catering  for  European  customers,  as  they  will  not  allow  or 
at  any  rate  encourage  the  production  of  silks  that  would 
take  on  the  European  market.  The  West  has  many  faults 
as  well  as  many  virtues,  and  one  of  its  faults  is  that  it  no 
longer  cares  for  articles  of  sterling  value,  which  last  long 
and  for  which  a  high  price  must  be  paid,  but  it  delights  in 
attractive  articles  of  poor  quality  at  a  low  price.  It  is  to  be 
feared  that  the  West  may  spoil  some  of  China's  great  prod- 
ucts as  she  has  spoilt  the  great  arts  and  productions  of  India. 


THE  CITIES  OF  CHINA  103 

But  to  return  to  Chinese  streets.  Next  the  silk  shop 
will  be  the  silver  shop.  Here  again  the  work  is  admirable. 
At  such  a  place  as  Kiukiang  you  can  spend  an  hour  or  more 
bargaining  and  watching  the  wonderful  skill  of  the  silver- 
smiths as  they  turn  out  beautiful  silver  ornaments.  It  is 
pleasant  to  wander  along  and  to  look  into  the  shops  and 
see  the  strange  things  that  are  for  sale — fish  of  many  kinds 
in  one  shop,  rice  and  grain  in  another,  strange  vegetables, 
little  bits  of  pork,  flattened  ducks ;  or  to  glance  at  the 
clothes  and  the  coats  hung  out>  many  of  them  of  brilliant 
colours.  The  signs  over  the  shops  and  the  names  of  the 
merchants  are  a  feature  in  themselves,  illuminated  as  they 
are  in  vivid  hues  of  red  and  gold,  in  those  wonderful  char- 
acters so  full  of  mystery  to  the  foreigner. 

In  a  native  city  up-country  the  traveller  is  practically 
forced  to  go  through  the  city  in  a  chair.  There  are  no 
wheel  conveyances  except  wheelbarrows,  and  except 
where  there  are  Manchus,  horses  are  quite  unknown. 
Walking  is  profoundly  unpleasant  for  a  European,  for  as  he 
walks  along  he  is  constantly  jostled  by  porters  carrying 
loads  of  goods  on  a  bamboo  across  their  shoulders ;  or  cries 
are  heard,  and  a  Chinese  Mandarin  is  carried  past  shoulder 
high,  leaning  forward  looking  out  of  his  chair  perhaps  with 
a  smile  of  contempt  for  the  foreigner  who  can  so  demean 
himself  as  to  go  on  foot  like  a  common  coolie ;  or  perhaps 
it  is  a  lady  with  her  chair  closely  covered  in  and  only  a 
glimpse  to  be  seen  of  a  rouged  and  powdered  face,  for  the 
Chinese  women  paint  to  excess,  as  part  of  their  ordinary 


104  CHINA 

toilet.  Next  comes  the  water-carrier  hurrying  past  with 
his  two  buckets  of  water ;  or  perhaps  it  is  some  malodorous 
burden  which  makes  a  Westerner  long  to  be  deprived  of 
the  sense  of  smell.  But  in  a  chair  a  ride  through  a  Chinese 
town  is  delightful;  the  chair-coolies  push  past  foot-pas- 
sengers who  accept  their  buffets  with  the  greatest  equa- 
nimity, and  from  a  comparatively  elevated  position  the 
traveller  can  look  down  on  the  crowd. 

But  when  the  Chinese  city  is  near  a  port,  all  this  begins 
to  change.  The  chair  is  replaced  by  the  ricksha,  and 
though  in  many  ways  it  is  less  comfortable  than  a  chair, 
the  ricksha  is  after  all  the  beginning  of  the  rule  of  the  West, 
being  a  labour-saving  machine.  One  coolie  or  two  at  the 
most  can  drag  a  man  quickly  and  easily  where  with  a  chair 
three  or  four  bearers  would  be  needed.  Outside  the  old 
town  will  be  built  the  new  native  town,  and  the  new  native 
town  is  built  on  European  lines,  with  comparatively  wide 
streets.  In  a  treaty  port  the  completed  specimen  of  the 
transitional  stage  through  which  all  China  is  passing  is  to 
be  seen.  Shanghai  is  a  most  delightful  town,  although  it 
seems  commonplace  to  those  who  live  there,  but  to  a 
stranger  it  is  a  place  full  of  contradictions  and  eccentricities. 
The  first  thing  that  strikes  one  in  Shanghai  is  that  none  of 
the  natives  know  any  of  the  names  of  the  streets.  It  is 
true  they  are  written  up  in  large  letters  both  in  English  and 
in  Chinese ;  but  as  not  one  of  the  coolies  can  read,  they 
have  not  the  very  slightest  idea  that  that  is  the  name  of  the 
street — they  call  it  quite  a  different  name ;  and  as  they 


THE  CITIES  OF  CHINA  105 

speak  a  different  language  both  to  that  of  the  educated 
Chinaman  and  to  the  Englishman,  there  is  no  reason  why 
they  should  ever  learn  the  names  given  by  them.  The 
habitual  way  of  directing  a  ricksha  coolie  is  by  a  sort  of 
pantomime,  and  there  is  always  a  great  element  of  uncer- 
tainty as  to  whether  he  will  get  to  his  destination  even  with 
the  oldest  resident  unless  he  knows  the  way  himself. 

Another  example  of  the  difficulty  of  carrying  on  the  de- 
tails of  city  life  is  afforded  by  a  common  spectacle  at  Shang- 
hai. In  the  crowded  streets  you  see  a  little  crowd  of  po- 
licemen. The  group  consists  of  three  splendid  men, 
typical  of  three  different  civilizations.  First  there  is  the 
English  policeman ;  next  to  him  is  a  black-bearded  man, 
bigger  than  the  first,  a  Sikh,  every  gesture  and  action  re- 
vealing the  martial  characteristics  of  his  race  j  then  a 
Chinaman  completes  the  group,  blue-coated  and  wearing  a 
queue  and  a  round  Chinese  hat  as  a  sign  of  office.  The 
traveller  wonders  why  this  trio  is  needed  till  he  sees  them 
in  action.  A  motor  car  rushes  down  one  road,  a  ricksha 
comes  down  another,  and  a  Chinese  wheelbarrow  with  six 
women  sitting  on  it  slowly  progresses  down  a  third.  All 
three  conveyances  are  controlled  by  Chinamen,  and  when 
they  meet,  all  shout  and  shriek  at  the  top  of  their  voices ; 
no  one  keeps  the  rule  of  the  road,  with  the  probable  result 
that  the  wheelbarrow  is  upset,  the  ricksha  is  forced  against 
the  wall,  and  the  motor  car  pulled  up  dead.  Then  the 
police  force  comes  into  action.  The  Chinese  policeman 
objurgates  vociferously  and  makes  signals  indifferently  to 


106  CHINA 

everybody  ;  the  Sikh  policeman  at  once  begins  to  thrash  the 
Chinese  coolie  ;  meanwhile  the  English  policeman  at  last 
gets  the  traffic  on  the  right  side  of  the  road,  quiets  his  sub- 
ordinates, sees  justice  done  and  restores  order.  Possibly  if 
the  matter  had  been  left  to  the  Chinese  policeman,  he 
would  have  arranged  it  in  the  end  j  the  traffic  in  Peking 
was  controlled  entirely  by  Chinese  policemen  and  was  fairly 
well  managed. 

Shanghai,  with  its  mixture  of  races,  with  its  national 
antipathies  and  jealousies,  is  indeed  one  of  the  most  attract- 
ive but  strangest  towns  in  the  whole  world.  Every  race 
meets  there ;  and  as  one  wanders  down  the  Nanking  road, 
one  never  tires  of  watching  the  nationalities  which  throng 
that  thoroughfare.  There  walks  a  tall  bearded  Russian,  a 
fat  German,  jostling  perhaps  a  tiny  Japanese  officer  whose 
whole  air  shows  that  he  regards  himself  as  a  member  of  the 
conquering  race  that  has  checkmated  the  vast  power  of 
Europe;  there  are  sleek  Chinese  in  Western  carriages  and 
there  are  thin  Americans  in  Eastern  rickshas  ;  the  motor 
cycle  rushes  past,  nearly  colliding  with  a  closely-curtained 
chair  bearing  a  Chinese  lady  of  rank,  or  a  splendid  Indian 
in  a  yellow  silk  coat  is  struck  in  the  face  by  the  hat  of  a 
Frenchman  who  finds  the  pavements  of  Shanghai  too  narrow 
for  his  sweeping  salute ;  one  hears  guttural  German  alter- 
nating with  Cockney  slang ;  Parisian  toilettes  are  seen  next 
half-naked  coolies ;  a  couple  of  sailors  on  a  tandem  cycle 
almost  upset  two  Japanese  beauties  as  they  shuffle  along 
with  their  toes  turned  in ;  a  grey-gowned  Buddhist  priest 


THE  CITIES  OF  CHINA  107 

elbows  a  bearded  Roman  missionary  j  a  Russian  shop,  where 
patriotism  rather  than  love  of  gain  induces  the  owners  to 
conceal  the  nature  of  their  wares  by  employing  the  Russian 
alphabet  overhead,  stands  opposite  a  Japanese  shop,  which, 
in  not  too  perfect  English,  assures  the  wide  world  that 
their  heads  can  be  cut  cheaply;  an  English  lady  looks 
askance  at  the  tightness  of  her  Chinese  sister's  nether  gar- 
ments, while  the  Chinese  sister  wonders  how  the  white 
race  can  tolerate  the  indecency  that  allows  a  woman  to 
show  her  shape  and  wear  transparent  sleeves. 


CHINESE  STREETS 

JOHN  HENRT  GRAT 

TO  this  large  and  ancient  Asiatic  Empire  many 
names  are  given  by  its  inhabitants.  The  prin- 
cipal are  Tchung  Kwock  and  Tien  Chu.  The 
term  Tchung  Kwock,  or  Middle  Kingdom,  was  given  to 
the  country  on  the  arrogant  supposition  that  it  is  the  grand 
central  kingdom  of  the  globe  around  which  all  the  other 
petty  states  are  arranged  as  so  many  different  satellites. 
Tien  Chu  is  the  term  in  which  the  nation  sets  forth  its 
heavenly  origin  in  contradistinction  to  the  inferior  genesis 
of  all  other  earthly  states.  By  the  tribes  who  dwell  be- 
tween China  and  the  eastern  shores  of  the  Caspian  Sea, 
the  country  is  called  Cathay,  or  the  Flowery  Land  ;  and  as, 
before  the  discovery  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  the  high- 
way from  Europe  to  China  lay  through  these  countries,  this 
was  the  name  Europeans  became  acquainted  with.  The 
word  China  is  said  to  be  derived  from  the  name  of  an 
emperor  of  the  short-lived  dynasty  of  Tsin.  This  emperor, 
who  was  named  Ching  Wong,  is  said  in  Chinese  annals  to 
have  been  one  of  the  greatest  heroes  of  whom  China,  or,  in- 
deed, any  other  land  can  boast.  He  extended  his  conquests 
over  the  countries  immediately  contiguous  to  the  western 
frontier  of  his  kingdom,  and  he  drove  the  Tartar  tribes  in 


CHINESE  STREETS  109 

the  north  back  to  their  mountain  fastnesses,  and  completed 
the  construction  of  the  Great  Wall  of  China  to  prevent 
their  incursions  in  future. 

The  great  political  divisions  of  the  country  are  eighteen 
provinces,  viz.,  Shan-tung,  Pe-chili,  Chih-li,  Shan-si  and 
Shen-si  in  the  north ;  Kwang-tung  and  Kwang-si  in  the 
south ;  Cheh-Kiang,  Fu-kien  and  Kiang-su  in  the  east ; 
Kan-suh,  Sze-ch'uen  and  Yun-nan  in  the  west ;  and  Ngan- 
hui,  Kiang-si,  Hu-nan,  Hu-peh,  Ho-nan  and  Kwei-chow, 
which  may  be  regarded  as  the  midland  provinces. 

Of  these  provinces  Sze-ch'uen  is  the  largest,  Cheh- 
Kiang  the  smallest  and]Kwang-tung,  from  its  almost  tropical 
position,  one  of  the  most  fertile.  Each  province  is  sub- 
divided into  poos,  districts,  or  counties  and  prefectures  or 
departments.  A  poo,  the  capital  of  which  is  a  market- 
town,  consists  of  a  number  of  towns  and  villages  ;  a  district 
or  country,  the  capital  of  which  is  a  walled  city,  consists 
of  a  number  of  poos ;  a  prefecture  or  department,  the 
capital  of  which  is  also  a  walled  city,  consists  of  a  number 
of  districts  or  counties,  and  a  province,  the  capital  of  which 
is  also  a  walled  city,  consists  of  a  number  of  prefectures. 
The  eighteen  provinces  of  China  Proper,  in  their  collective 
capacity,  contain  upwards  of  four  thousand  walled  cities, 
Peking  (which  though  a  royal  city,  and  the  seat  of  the  cen- 
tral government,  is  without  exception  the  dirtiest  place  I 
ever  entered)  being  the  capital.  The  cities  which  rank 
next  to  the  capital  in  point  of  importance,  though  vastly 
superior  to  it  in  almost  every  respect,  are  Nanking,  Soo- 


no  CHINA 

chow,  Hang-chow  and  Canton.  The  market-towns  and 
villages  of  this  vast  empire  are  also  very  numerous. 

The  walls  by  which  each  country  and  prefectoral  and 
provincial  capital  city  is  enclosed  are  from  thirty  to  fifty  or 
sixty  feet  high.  Those  by  which  Peking  is  surrounded  are 
in  appearance  by  far  the  most  imposing.  In  many  in- 
stances, however,  the  walls  of  Chinese  cities  are  undertak- 
ings of  great  magnitude,  and  are  remarkable,  both  for  the 
extent  of  their  circumference  and  for  their  massive  appear- 
ance, their  width  affording  space  sufficient  for  two  carriages 
travelling  abreast. 

Thus,  for  example,  those  which  enclose  the  city  of 
Nanking  are  eighteen  English  miles  in  circumference.  At 
all  events  it  took  me  six  hours  to  walk  round  them ;  and  I 
walked,  without  stopping  once,  at  a  rate  exceeding  three 
miles  per  hour.  The  walls  of  Chinese  cities  are  castellated, 
and  provided  with  embrasures  for  artillery  and  loopholes  for 
musketry.  At  frequent  intervals  there  are  watch-towers 
and  barracks  for  the  accommodation  of  troops.  On  the 
top  of  the  ramparts  in  some  places  are  piled  large  stones 
which  in  times  of  tumult  or  war  are  thrown  upon  the  heads 
of  assailants. 

At  the  north,  south,  east  and  west  sides  of  each  Chinese 
city,  there  are  large  folding  gates  of  great  strength.  These 
are  further  secured  by  equally  massive  inner  gates.  Each 
of  the  principal  outer  gates  of  the  city  of  Nanking  is 
strengthened  by  three  such  inner  gates.  Of  the  gates  of  a 
Chinese  city,  the  one  which  is  held  in  honour  above  all 


CHINESE  STREETS  in 

others  is  that  at  the  south.  Through  the  south  gate,  or 
gate  of  honour,  which  is  especially  regarded  as  the  emperor's 
gate,  all  officials  coming  to  the  city  to  hold  office  enter ;  and 
when  they  vacate  office,  it  is  by  the  same  gate  that  they  de- 
part. No  funeral  procession  is  allowed  to  pass  through  this 
gate,  and  the  same  prohibition  excludes  the  bearers  of 
night-soil,  or  of  anything  which  is  regarded  as  unclean. 
The  south  gate  of  the  capital  of  the  empire  is  regarded  as 
so  sacred  that,  as  a  rule,  it  is  kept  closed,  and  only  opened 
when  the  emperor  has  occasion  to  pass  that  way. 

The  streets  of  cities,  towns  and  villages  are  generally 
wider  in  the  northern  than  in  the  southern  provinces  of  the 
empire.  Those  of  Peking  are  very  broad.  Indeed  in  this 
respect  they  equal  those  of  European  cities.  The  narrow- 
ness of  the  streets  in  the  south  of  China  gives  them  the 
great  advantage  of  coolness  during  the  summer  months. 
Many  of  them  are  so  narrow  as  to  shut  out  in  a  great 
measure  the  rays  of  a  hot  tropical  sun  ;  and  in  some  in- 
stances they  are  partially  covered  over  during  the  hot 
season  by  the  residents  with  canvas  matting,  or  thin  planks 
of  timber.  Many  of  the  towns,  also,  in  the  north  of 
Formosa,  are  protected  in  this  way.  The  pathways  which 
run  in  front  of  the  shops  are  arched  over,  and  as  they  are 
frequently  constructed  in  the  form  of  rude  arcades,  it  is 
possible  to  pass  from  one  part  of  the  town  to  another  with- 
out exposing  oneself  to  the  sun  or  rain.  Between  the  foot- 
paths that  are  covered  in  this  way,  there  is  a  thoroughfare 
for  sedan-chairs  and  beasts  of  burden.  It  appeared  to  me, 


ii2  CHINA 

however,  that  this  centre  thoroughfare  is  more  generally 
used  as  a  public  dust-bin  than  as  a  street.  The  shop- 
keepers are  in  the  habit  of  throwing  into  it  all  sorts  of 
refuse,  which  is  not  so  speedily  removed  by  the  scavengers 
of  the  town  as  it  ought  to  be.  Manka,  which  is  one  of  the 
principal  towns  in  the  north  of  Formosa,  is  above  all  others 
remarkable  for  the  arrangements  of  its  streets  after  this 
fashion.  At  Hoo-chow,  a  prefectoral  city  in  the  province 
of  Cheh-Kiang,  I  passed  through  two  streets  which  were 
constructed  in  the  form  of  arcades,  which  are  not  however 
so  perfect  as  those  of  Manka.  The  streets  of  Chinese 
cities  are  paved  with  granite  slabs,  bricks,  or  paving-stones. 
Those  of  the  city  of  Canton  are  paved  with  granite  slabs. 
The  streets  of  the  city  of  Soo-chow — so  long  famous  for 
the  wealth  of  its  citizens — are  in  some  cases  paved  with 
granite  slabs,  and  in  others  with  paving-stones. 

Under  the  streets  of  Chinese  towns  there  are  conduits 
into  which  the  rain  percolates  as  it  falls  through  the  chinks 
between  the  granite  slabs.  Where  the  streets  are  paved 
with  paving-stones,  there  are  channels  or  gutters  on  either 
side ;  these,  however,  are  so  narrow  as  to  prove  of  little  or 
no  service,  so  that  they  become  pools  of  filth  from  which 
there  is  a  fearful  stench  in  the  summer  months.  The 
streets  of  Peking  are  macadamized,  or  supposed  to  be  so. 
They  are  considerably  raised  in  the  centre,  so  that  the  rain- 
water may  easily  flow  into  the  conduits  on  either  side.  In 
summer,  they  are  so  covered  with  dust  as  to  render  travel- 
ling upon  them  a  thing  to  be  avoided.  In  the  evening, 


CHINESE  STREETS  113 

there  is  a  most  intolerable  stench  ;  for  the  conduits  are 
then  opened  and  the  stagnant  water  they  contain  is  scooped 
out  and  scattered  broadcast  over  the  streets  for  the  pur- 
pose of  laying  the  dust.  The  names  which  are  given  to 
the  streets  of  Chinese  cities  are  generally  very  high  sound- 
ing. Thus  we  have  the  Street  of  Golden  Profits  j  the 
Street  of  Benevolence  and  Love  ;  the  Street  of  Everlasting 
Love ;  the  Street  of  Longevity  ;  the  Street  of  One  Hun- 
dred Grandsons ;  the  Street  of  One  Thousand  Grandsons ; 
the  Street  of  Saluting  Dragons  ;  the  Street  of  the  Sweeping 
Dragon ;  the  Street  of  the  Reposing  Dragon  ;  the  Street 
of  Refreshing  Breezes  ;  the  Street  of  One  Thousand  Beati- 
tudes ;  the  Street  of  a  Thousandfold  Peace ;  the  Street  of 
Five  Happinesses ;  the  Street  of  Ten  Thousand  Happi- 
nesses j  the  Street  of  Ninefold  Brightness ;  the  Street  of 
Accumulated  Goodness.  Other  streets  are  simply  num- 
bered as  First  Street,  Second  Street,  Third  Street,  and  so  on. 
The  shops  of  which  the  streets  of  Chinese  cities  are 
formed,  and  which  are  built  of  bricks,  are  of  various  sizes. 
They  are  entirely  open  in  front.  There  is,  however,  no 
rule  without  an  exception ;  and  many  of  the  shops  at 
Peking  are  provided  with  glass  windows.  I  also  saw  them 
in  the  banking  establishments  in  Soo-chow.  At  the  door 
of  each  shop  stand  two  or  more  long  sign-boards,  upon 
each  side  of  which  are  painted  in  neat  bold  letters  in  gold, 
vermilion,  or  other  gay  colours,  the  name  of  the  "  hong" 
and  the  various  commodities  which  it  contains  for  sale. 
The  name  of  the  hong  or  shop  consists  of  two  characters. 


U4  CHINA 

In  some  instances  a  shopkeeper  places  above  the  door  of 
his  shop  a  small  sign-board  resembling  in  form  some  par- 
ticular article  which  he  has  for  sale.  Thus  a  collar-maker 
has  a  sign  made  in  the  form  of  a  collar;  a  hosier's  sign  re- 
sembles a  stocking ;  a  bootmaker's  a  boot ;  and  a  specta- 
cle-maker's a  pair  of  spectacles.  In  some  cases  the  signs 
are  not  shaped  to  represent  the  articles,  but  representations 
of  these,  such  as  hats,  fans,  and  even  sticking-plasters  are 
painted  on  them.  Some  shopkeepers,  not  satisfied  with 
having  sign-boards  suspended  from  the  side-posts  of  the 
doors  of  their  shops,  seek  to  make  themselves  still  better 
known  by  painting  their  names  and  the  wares  in  which 
they  deal  in  large  characters  on  the  outer  walls  of  the  cities 
in  which  they  reside.  On  the  walls  of  the  cities  of  Tang- 
yang  and  Chang-chow,  on  the  banks  of  the  Grand  Canal, 
I  observed  this  to  be  especially  the  case.  Boards  on  which 
are  recorded  the  names  of  each  person  residing  in  the  house 
are  also,  in  compliance  with  law,  placed  on  the  entrance 
door  or  outer  wall  of  each  dwelling-house.  This  custom 
appeared  to  me  to  be  much  more  observed  in  the  rural  dis- 
tricts than  in  the  cities  and  towns.  Above  the  entrance- 
door  of  each  shop  hang  lanterns ;  and,  from  the  roof,  lamps 
of  glass  or  horn  upon  which  are  gaily-coloured  representa- 
tions of  birds,  flowers,  gardens  and  temples.  These  in- 
numerable, bright-painted  sign-boards  and  lanterns  give  a 
Chinese  street  a  most  cheerful  and  animated  appearance. 
The  streets  of  Canton,  which,  in  this  respect,  are  most  con- 
spicuous, are  the  Chaong-tan  Kai ;  the  Chong-yune-fong ; 


CHINESE  STREETS  115 

the  Tai-sing  Kai ;  the  Sue-sze-tai  Kai ;  the  Koo-tai  Kai ; 
the  Shaong-mun  tai ;  the  Wye-oi  Kai  j  and  the  Tai-fat- 
sze-chein. 

The  shops  are  not  distributed  indiscriminately  through- 
out the  Chinese  towns,  as  is  the  case  to  a  large  extent  in 
European  cities.  They  are  confined  to  certain  quarters, 
and  even  in  the  streets  appropriated  to  them,  they  do  not 
occur  promiscuously.  Each  branch  of  trade  has  its  special 
place  to  which  it  is  usually  restricted.  On  each  side  of  a 
street  we  should  generally  find  shops  of  the  same  kind. 
Near  the  entrance  of  his  shop,  the  master  is  often  seated 
waiting  with  much  patience  for  the  arrival  of  customers. 
No  female  member  of  the  tradesman's  family  resides  in 
apartments  either  above  or  behind  the  shop.  In  the  even- 
ing, therefore,  when  the  shutters  have  been  put  up,  the 
tradesman  hastens  to  his  home  in  the  more  retired  parts  of 
the  town,  leaving  his  stock  in  charge  of  his  assistants  and 
apprentices. 

The  streets  in  which  the  gentry  reside  consist  generally 
of  well-built  houses,  which,  like  the  majority  of  houses  in 
China,  are  of  one  story  only.  They  extend,  however,  a 
considerable  distance  to  the  rear,  and  are  so  large  and 
spacious  as  to  be  capable  of  containing  a  great  number  of 
persons.  They  are  approached  by  large  folding-doors.  As 
the  walls  which  front  the  streets  are  without  windows,  they 
present,  in  many  cases,  the  appearance  of  encampments. 
Detached  houses — of  which  there  are  many — bear  a  very 
striking  resemblance  to  encampments.  This  is  particularly 


n6  CHINA 

true  of  the  houses  of  the  gentry  who  reside  in  the  cities  of 
Soo-chow,  Yang-chow,  Hang-chow  and  Hoo-chow ;  and  it 
has  often  struck  me  in  my  peregrinations  through  the  prov- 
inces of  Kiang-su  and  Kiang-soo.  Chinese  houses  have 
no  fireplaces.  In  the  cool  season,  therefore,  the  occupants 
have  to  keep  themselves  warm  by  wearing  additional  cloth- 
ing, or  by  means  of  portable  brass  or  earthenware  vessels 
in  which  charcoal  embers  are  kept  burning.  Owing  to  the 
houses  and  shops  which  form  its  streets  not  being  generally 
of  the  same  height,  or  arranged  in  a  direct  line,  a  Chinese 
town  or  village  looks  very  irregular.  This  irregularity  is 
due  to  the  fact  that  the  houses  are  built  according  to  the 
principles  of  geomancy,  which  do  not  admit  of  the  ridge- 
beams  of  each  house  in  a  street  being  placed  in  a  direct 
line.  Were  they  so  placed,  evils  of  various  kinds  would,  it 
is  said,  be  the  inevitable  result. 

The  streets,  or  squares,  of  Chinese  cities  are  not  adorned 
like  the  streets  and  squares  of  European  cities  with  stone, 
marble  or  bronze  statues  of  the  great,  the  brave,  and  the 
learned.  In  nearly  all  the  principal  cities  of  China  there 
are,  however,  monumental  arches  erected  in  honour  of  re- 
nowned warriors,  illustrious  statesmen,  distinguished  citi- 
zens, learned  scholars,  virtuous  women,  or  dutiful  sons  or 
daughters.  In  some  instances  such  monuments  are  built 
of  brick,  in  others  of  marble,  in  others  of  old  red  sandstone, 
but  more  generally  of  granite.  A  Chinese  monument  of 
this  nature  consists  of  a  triple  arch  or  gateway,  that  is,  a 
large  centre  gate,  and  a  smaller  gateway  on  each  side.  On 


CHINESE  STREETS  117 

a  large  polished  slab,  which  is  placed  above  the  middle  gate- 
way, are  figures  done  in  sculpture,  or  Chinese  characters 
setting  forth  the  object  with  which  the  citizens,  by  imperial 
permission,  erected  the  arch. 


PEKING 

PIERRE  LEROT-BEAULIEU 

ALTHOUGH  not  the  most  ancient  city  in  the 
Celestial  Empire,  Peking  is  an  epitome  of  the  rest 
of  China,  together  with  its  ancient  civilization 
and  its  present  stagnation  and  decadence.  It  belongs  to  a 
very  different  type  from  the  cities  of  Europe,  or  even  of  the 
Moslem  world,  and  the  sight  of  its  immense  wall  and  suc- 
cessive enclosures,  which  divide  it  into  four  distinct  parts, 
reminds  one  of  Nineveh  or  Babylon.  In  the  centre  is  the 
"  Forbidden  "  or  "  Purple  City,"  about  a  league  in  length 
from  north  to  south,  and  a  quarter  of  a  league  in  width, 
containing  the  palaces  of  the  Emperor  and  Empress 
Dowager,  and  the  gardens  and  the  residences  of  a  swarm 
of  parasites  numbering,  it  is  said,  between  six  or  eight 
thousand  persons,  inclusive  of  guards,  concubines,  eunuchs, 
functionaries,  gardeners  and  other  attendants  upon  the  Im- 
perial harem.  The  only  Europeans  who  are  allowed  to 
cross  the  sacred  threshold  of  the  Purple  City  are  the  mem- 
bers of  the  Diplomatic  Corps,  to  whom  the  Emperor  gives 
audience  on  New  Year's  Day,  as  well  as  since  quite  re- 
cently on  the  occasions  of  their  arrival  or  taking  leave. 
Around  the  Purple  City  extends  the  Imperial  City,  its  walls 
painted  pink,  which  in  its  turn  is  surrounded  by  the  Tartar 


PEKING  119 

City,  a  rectangle  of  four  miles  in  length  by  three  miles  in 
width,  whose  sides  face  the  cardinal  points.  Its  colossal 
walls  are  fifty  feet  high,  and  at  their  summit  are  fifty  feet 
wide.  Their  external  fronts  consist  of  two  strong  brick 
walls,  rising  from  a  substructure  of  stone.  The  interior  is 
filled  up  with  earth,  and  the  summit,  covered  with  flag- 
stones, forms  a  walk  bordered  by  embattled  stone  parapets. 
Bastions  project  outwards,  and  huge  pavilions  built  of  brick, 
pierced  with  many  balastraria,  and  coated  with  highly-var- 
nished coloured  tiles,  ornament  its  four  corners  and  gates. 
It  rises  only  ninety-nine  feet  above  the  ground,  beyond 
which  height  it  is  never  allowed  to  build,  lest  the  flight  of 
the  good  spirits  might  be  inconvenienced  thereby.  This 
magnificent  rampart,  which  to  the  northeast  and  to  the 
west  rises  abruptly  from  the  midst  of  the  country,  Peking 
having  no  suburbs,  presents  a  most  imposing  aspect ;  and  it 
is  not  less  impressive  when  beheld  from  any  one  of  the 
half-moons,  which  are  very  vast,  and  are  built  before  the 
various  gates,  but  which,  owing  to  the  height  of  the  em- 
battled walls  which  surround  them  on  all  sides,  each  of 
which  is  surmounted  by  a  massive  brick  pavilion,  look  like 
wells. 

To  the  south  of  the  Tartar  City  is  a  group  of  less  im- 
posing walls  surrounding  the  lengthy  rectangle  which  in- 
cludes the  Chinese  City,  the  commercial  part  of  Peking. 
The  broad  street  that  intersects  it  from  north  to  south,  and 
cuts  it  into  two  equal  parts,  especially  close  to  the  Tsieng- 
Men  Gate,  by  which  you  pass  into  the  Tartar  City,  is  the 


120  CHINA 

most  animated  artery  of  the  city.  In  the  central  walk, 
paved  with  magnificent  flagstones,  not  one  of  which  is  now 
in  its  right  place,  and  which  apparently  only  serve  as  stum- 
bling blocks  to  pedestrians,  and  are  covered  with  mud  a  foot 
deep  in  summer,  and  by  a  pestilential  dust  in  winter,  circu- 
late in  the  utmost  confusion  the  ever-present  waggons,  al- 
ready described,  palanquins,  sedan-chairs,  whose  colours 
vary  with  the  dignity  of  the  owner,  chairs  drawn  by  mules, 
men  riding  on  small  Manchurian  ponies,  indefatigable  asses, 
which  are  the  best  means  of  locomotion  in  the  place,  enor- 
mous one-wheeled  barrows,  coolies  struggling  under  the 
burden  of  huge  baskets  filled  with  fruit,  vegetables  and 
other  comestibles,  fixed  to  the  end  of  a  very  long  pole 
slung  across  their  shoulders — all  this  busy  world  bustles 
along,  filling  the  air  with  shouts  and  cries  of  every  kind, 
from  the  croaking  of  the  porters  to  the  stentorian  shouts  of 
the  waggoners.  Occasionally  a  long  string  of  huge  two- 
humped  camels,  a  cord  running  from  the  nostrils  of  one 
animal  to  the  tail  of  the  other,  and  led  by  a  Mongolian 
urchin,  adds  to  the  incredible  confusion.  All  this  crowd, 
together  with  beasts  and  vehicles,  has  to  content  itself  with 
what,  under  ordinary  circumstances,  would  be  a  very  broad 
roadway,  if  at  least  a  third  of  it  were  not  encumbered  by  a 
sort  of  permanent  open-air  fair,  carried  on  in  rows  of  booths, 
some  of  which  are  used  as  restaurants,  others  as  shops  of 
every  description.  These  booths  turn  their  backs  to  the 
middle  of  the  street,  and  thus  hide  the  line  of  shops  beyond, 
of  which,  from  the  centre  of  the  road,  you  can  only  per- 


PEKING  121 

ceive  the  enormous  and  innumerable  sign-boards  hanging 
from  a  veritable  forest  of  gaily-painted  poles. 

Beyond  the  Tsieng-Men  Gate  is  situated  the  Beggars' 
Bridge,  always  thronged  by  groups  of  wretches  clamouring 
for  alms  and  ostentatiously  displaying  the  most  appalling 
mutilations,  with  all  kinds  of  loathsome  diseases  added  to 
their  sordid  misery  to  excite  compassion.  The  narrow 
sidewalks,  which  are  bordered  on  the  one  hand  by  booths, 
and  on  the  other  by  big  shops,  are  filled  by  a  motley  gath- 
ering of  small  shopkeepers,  each  plying  his  business  in  the 
open  air — barbers,  hair-dressers  and  fortune-tellers,  among 
whom  the  crowd  has  no  little  difficulty  in  threading  its  way. 
Here  you  see  men  in  light-blue  blouses,  with  long  pigtails; 
Chinese  ladies  with  their  hair  dragged  back  magpie-tail 
fashion,  who  balance  themselves  painfully  as  they  go  along 
on  their  tiny  deformed  feet ;  Tartar  women,  whose  hair  is 
puffed  out  on  each  side  of  their  faces,  and  who,  like  their 
Chinese  sisters,  stick  a  big  flower  behind  their  ears.  Not 
being  crippled  by  bound  feet,  like  their  less  fortunate 
Chinese  sisters,  these  women  strut  along  with  as  firm  a 
step  as  their  high-heeled  clogs  will  permit.  Their  faces 
are  bedaubed  with  rice-flour,  and  their  cheeks  painted  an 
alarmingly  bright  red.  Children  with  their  heads  shaved 
in  the  most  comical  manner,  dotted  about  with  little  tufts, 
that  have  a  very  funny  appearance,  being  cut  according  to 
the  taste  or  caprice  of  their  parents,  also  run  about.  Among 
the  well-clad  children  of  a  better  class  are  others,  stark- 
naked,  looking  for  all  the  world  like  small  animated  bronzes, 


122  CHINA 

so  dark  and  warm-coloured  is  their  polished  skin.  In 
order  to  avoid  being  mobbed,  one  has  occasionally  to  seek 
refuge  in  a  shop,  which  usually  opens  on  to  the  street,  and 
is  without  windows.  In  the  back  the  shopkeepers  are 
peacefully  seated  behind  their  counters  smoking  long  pipes, 
whilst  exhibiting  their  goods  and  listening  to  the  bargain- 
ings of  their  customers.  These  shops  are  always  very 
clean,  and  the  goods  are  arranged  with  great  order  and  even 
considerable  taste.  A  bowl  with  goldfish,  or  a  cage  full  of 
birds,  adds  not  a  little  to  the  charm  and  peacefulness  of  the 
scene,  which  is  peculiarly  refreshing  after  the  noise  and 
dirt  of  the  streets. 

All  the  great  arteries  of  Peking  are  equally  filthy  and 
closely  resemble  each  other,  excepting  that  not  one  of  them 
can  equal,  either  in  the  size  of  the  shops  or  wealth  of  their 
contents,  the  famous  High  Street  that  leads  to  the  Tsieng- 
Men  Gate.  In  summer,  after  the  rains,  a  coating  of  mud 
some  two  feet  and  a  half  deep  covers  both  road  and  foot- 
path, which  when  the  weather  dries  again  is  converted  into 
thick  clouds  of  dust.  The  sideways,  always  lower  than 
the  central  road,  are  usually  filled  by  pools  of  green  water, 
whence  arises  the  most  horrible  stench  of  decayed  vege- 
tables and  rotting  carcases  of  animals,  in  addition  to  the 
accumulated  offal  of  the  neighbouring  houses.  The  won- 
der of  it  all  is  that  the  entire  population  of  Peking  has 
not  long  since  been  swept  away  by  some  appalling 
epidemic. 

Leaving  aside  the  few  broad  streets,  one  frequently  comes 


PEKING  123 

across  immense  open  spaces,  whose  centres  are  generally 
occupied  by  a  huge  dunghill.  The  narrow  little  streets 
that  branch  out  in  all  directions  can  be  divided  into  two 
classes — those  which  border  on  the  three  or  four  principal 
commercial  thoroughfares,  which,  like  them,  are  lined  with 
shops,  but  are  scarcely  broad  enough  to  allow  of  the  pas- 
sage of  a  single  cart,  although  they  are  thronged  from 
morning  to  night  by  a  seething,  noisy  crowd ;  and  the 
silent  and  deadly  dull  private  streets,  where  the  dwelling- 
houses  are  to  be  found.  On  either  side  runs  a  gray  wall, 
whose  monotony  is  broken  at  intervals  by  a  series  of  shabby 
little  doors.  If  any  one  of  these  happens  to  be  open,  one 
can  only  perceive  from  the  street  a  small  courtyard  a  few 
feet  square,  and  another  dead  wall,  beyond  which  is  the 
inner  courtyard,  shut  off  from  all  observation,  and  on  which 
open  all  the  windows  of  these  singular  dwellings,  not  one 
of  which  is  more  than  one  story  high,  and  always  protected 
by  a  gray  double-tiled  roof,  usually  ornamented  at  the  four 
corners  by  some  grotesque  stone  beast  or  other,  but  never 
turned  up  at  the  ends  as  are  invariably  those  of  the  temples 
and  the  monuments.  There  is  no  movement  whatever  in 
these  streets.  A  few  children  play  before  the  doors,  a  dog 
or  so  strays  about  in  the  road,  and  now  and  again  a  coolie 
or  an  itinerant  merchant,  with  two  baskets  suspended  from 
a  pole  across  his  shoulders,  breaks  the  silence  by  a  shrill 
cry  ;  sometimes  a  donkey  or  a  cart  passes  along  but  fails 
to  enliven  the  deadly  quiet  of  the  street,  which  is  so  still  and 
monotonous  that  one  might  almost  imagine  one's  self  in  a 


I24  CHINA 

village  instead  of  in  one  of  the  most  populous  cities  in  the 
world. 

The  scene  changes  entirely  when  Peking  is  seen  from 
the  heights  of  the  walls  which  form  the  only  agreeable 
promenade  in  the  capital,  to  whose  summits  ascends  neither 
the  mud  nor  the  stench  of  this  dirtiest  of  cities.  The  eye 
wanders  pleasantly  over  a  forest  of  fine  trees,  for  every 
house  has  one  or  two  in  its  courtyard,  and  barely  a  glimpse 
of  the  offensive  streets  is  to  be  had :  only  the  gray  roofs  of 
the  little  houses ;  and  thus  Peking  looks  for  all  the  world 
like  an  immense  park,  from  whose  midst  rise  the  yellow 
roofs  of  the  Imperial  Palace,  and  to  the  northern  extremity 
of  the  city,  a  wooded  height  called  the  Coal  Mountain,  sur- 
mounted by  a  pagoda. 

As  to  monuments  there  are  very  few  in  Peking  worth 
the  seeing  and  into  these  foreigners  are  never  allowed  to 
enter.  Twenty-five  or  thirty  years  ago  visitors  were  ad- 
mitted into  a  great  number  of  the  temples  :  that  of  Heaven, 
which  is  now  being  restored  and  where  the  emperor  goes 
annually  to  make  a  sacrifice,  and  the  Temples  of  the  Sun, 
the  Moon  and  of  Agriculture,  and  they  were  even  allowed 
to  peep  into  the  Imperial  Gardens ;  but  since  the  entry  of 
the  Anglo-French  troops  into  Peking  in  1860,  the  Chinese 
have  been  very  reticent  with  respect  to  their  monuments. 
The  only  temple  now  open  for  our  inspection  is  that  of 
Confucius,  an  immense  but  rather  commonplace  hall,  with 
a  steep  roof  supported  on  pillars  painted  a  vivid  red. 
Foreigners  are  also  permitted  to  visit  the  place  where  the 


PEKING  125 

literati  undergo  their  examinations.  It  consists  of  some 
thousands  of  little  cells  lining  several  long,  open  corridors, 
wherein  the  unfortunate  candidates  for  law  and  medicine 
are  shut  for  several  days  while  they  answer  the  questions  set 
them.  Then  there  is  the  old  Observatory,  wherein  are  two 
series  of  highly  useful  instruments.  The  first  dates  from 
the  time  of  the  Mongol  Dynasty  in  the  Thirteenth  Century 
and  lies  scattered  half  buried  among  the  weeds  at  the  bot- 
tom of  the  courtyard ;  the  second  series  is  less  antiquated, 
having  been  made  under  the  direction  of  the  Jesuit  Verbiest, 
who  was  astronomer  to  the  Emperor  of  China  in  the  early 
part  of  the  Seventeenth  Century.  They  are  shown  on  the 
walls.  After  seeing  these  thoroughly  up-to-date  astronom- 
ical instruments,  one  has  visited  all  there  is  to  be  seen  in 
the  Imperial  city  of  Peking. 


THE  TEMPLE  OF  HEAVEN 

T.  HODGSON  HDD  ELL 

ONE  of  the  first  notable  places  I  determined  to  paint 
was  the  Temple  of  Heaven.     The  entrance  to  this 
place   is   quite   easy  for  a  European — it  simply 
means   a   ten    cent   payment  at  each  of  the  gates.     The 
ordinary  tourist  who  is  going  to  see  the  many  temples,  all 
appertaining   to   the   Temple  of  Heaven,  has  many  pay- 
ments to  make. 

The  entrance  to  the  Temple  of  Heaven  is  about  two 
miles  out  in  the  Chinese  city.  I  made  the  journey  in 
rickshas,  one  for  myself  and  one  for  my  boy — a  new 
boy,  by  the  way,  lent  to  me  for  the  time  by  one  of  my 
friends  in  Tientsin.  The  boy  carried  most  of  my  working 
materials.  Leaving  the  hotel  we  crossed  the  canal,  passed 
the  American  Legation,  and  skirting  the  great  entrance  to 
the  Imperial  Palaces,  went  out  under  the  imposing  Chien- 
Men  on  to  and  over  the  beautiful  marble  bridge,  through  a 
great  pailau  and  away  out  to  the  long,  straight,  and  wide 
road  lined  on  either  side  by  stalls  and  booths  of  all  kinds, 
with  the  shops  behind  these.  The  first  part  of  this  road  is 
new  macadam  and  good,  but  some  distance  out  one  comes 
to  another  marble  bridge  of  very  pretty  design.  This  we 
do  not  cross,  but  went  to  one  side  and  over  a  commonplace 


THE  TEMPLE  OF  HEAVEN     127 

timber  bridge,  the  marble  bridge  being  kept  for  Imperial  use. 
Then  we  began  to  bump  along  the  old  paved  road.  A  little 
of  this  goes  along  way;  but  soon  we  turned  off  to  the  left,  and 
reached  the  outer  gate  in  the  wall  surrounding  the  grounds, 
where  the  greatest  of  China's  great  temples  is  placed. 

Inside  the  gate,  having  duly  paid  my  ten  cents  (about 
two  pence)  I  found  myself  in  what  was  like  a  large  Eng- 
lish park,  with  stretches  of  grass  and  great  trees  and  groups 
of  black  cattle  which  are  bred  and  kept  here  for  sacrificial 
purposes ;  they  are  rather  like  "  Black  Angus  "  cattle.  On 
through  this  park  we  sped  in  our  rickshas  till  we  reached 
another  high  wall,  with  the  usual  three  gates,  and  from 
here  we  had  to  walk. 

Another  ten  cents,  and  we  enter,  by  a  small  side  gate, 
more  park  lands ;  but  we  see  signs  of  buildings,  and  soon 
come  to  another  wall  with  more  gates ;  ten  cents  again,  and 
we  enter,  to  find  ourselves  in  full  view  of  the  Temple  of 
the  Year.  This  great  building  is  circular  and  stands  high, 
with  terraces  and  balustrades  of  marble,  all  carved  and 
sculptured  with  designs  of  dragons,  fish,  and  all  the  mythical 
creatures  in  which  these  mystical  people  delight. 

The  architectural  forms  here  show,  as  in  all  buildings  in 
China — religious,  Imperial  and  domestic — that  the  number 
three,  or  a  multiple  of  it,  is  of  great  moment,  a  sacred  sign. 
There  are  three  of  these  marble  terraces,  rising  one  above 
the  other;  and  in  the  third  is  the  huge  temple  itself. 

The  building  is  carried  and  held  by  the  usual  great 
coloured  pillars,  on  which  rests  the  triple  roof,  covered 


128  CHINA 

with  glazed  tiles  of  a  wondrous  blue ;  to  see  the  play  of  the 
blazing  sunlight  on  those  shining  blue  tiles  and  red  painted 
woodwork,  and  on  the  gleaming  marble  balustrades  and 
terraces,  is  one  of  the  grandest  sights  in  the  world. 

From  this  I  made  my  way  to  other  temples  of  various 
forms,  all  showing  great  beauty.  There  was  one  with  a 
green-tiled  roof  which,  for  the  quality  of  the  colour,  was 
very  remarkable. 

From  the  Temple  of  the  Year  there  is  a  series  of  temples, 
each  used  by  the  Emperor  when  he  comes  here  to  perform 
the  sacred  rites  of  his  office.  The  last  of  all  the  covered 
buildings  is  the  Emperor's  robing  temple.  It  is  of  ex- 
quisite form  and  colour,  the  same  wondrous  blue  tiles  being 
used.  It  is  from  this  temple  that  he  comes  to  the  great 
open-air  sacrificial  altar.  The  form  of  this  altar  is  circular  ; 
it  is  enclosed  within  two  circular  walls  of  brick,  plastered 
and  painted  red,  and  covered  with  blue  tiles  and  pierced  at 
regular  intervals  by  groups  of  gateways,  three  in  each  group, 
each  with  tall  and  massive  but  simple  pailaus.  The  altar  is 
of  white  marble  and  rises  in  three  terraces  to  the  centre  and 
topmost,  in  the  middle  of  which  is  set  up  a  plain  rough 
stone,  looked  on  by  the  Chinese  as  holding  the  position  of 
the  centre  of  the  universe. 

In  the  outer  enclosures  can  be  seen  the  buildings  on 
which  the  actual  burnt-offerings  or  sacrifice  of  the  black 
cattle  is  made. 

My  description  of  this,  the  most  beautiful  and  impressive 
example  of  architecture  in  existence,  is  lamentably  want- 


THE  TEMPLE  OF  HEAVEN     129 

ing;  no  words  of  mine  can  describe  it.  But  let  any  one 
stand,  say,  in  the  courtyard  in  the  Emperor's  robing  temple, 
and  look  over  the  scene,  and  I  think  they  must  feel  im- 
pressed. First  you  see  the  tall  stone  gateways,  beautiful 
in  simplicity  and  ruggedness,  and  serving  to  show  up  by 
contrast  the  more  finished  beauty  of  the  wonderfully  de- 
signed, carved  and  sculptured  marble  of  the  terraced  altar, 
with  the  most  gorgeous  roof  of  all  overhead,  the  blue  sky, 
and  the  sun  sending  down  his  rays  of  gleaming  light  on 
these  old  terraces,  casting  shadows  from  the  pillared  balus- 
trading,  showing  the  cunning  work  on  the  steps,  and  toning 
and  beautifying  the  whole  into  the  most  beautiful  and  im- 
pressive picture  I  have  ever  looked  upon. 

What  would  I  not  give  to  see  this  place  at  the  time  when 
those  mysterious  rites  of  worship  are  carried  out  in  all  the 
barbaric  splendours  of  the  country  ? 

To  describe  the  many  other  temples  within  this  lovely 
park  would  be  superfluous,  because  the  lesser  temples  are 
all  much  alike,  and  I  fear  that  all  suffer  by  comparison  with 
the  greater  one. 

Many  days  did  I  spend  in  this  quiet  place,  working  in 
great  comfort,  taking  my  lunch  with  me,  enjoying  the  crisp 
sunlight  of  autumn,  occasionally  seeing  a  foreign  visitor 
being  shown  around  ;  whilst  almost  my  only  onlookers  were 
the  few  coolies  employed  to  pull  up  some  of  the  weeds  in 
the  courtyards.  I  say  some,  because  they  seemed  purposely 
to  leave  many,  and  most  of  their  time  was  spent  in  talking 
to  each  other. 


ijo  CHINA 

I  have  remarked  how  easy  it  is  for  foreigners  to  obtain 
entrance  to  this,  the  most  sacred  place  in  China.  It  was 
not  so  before  1900,  when  our  troops  took,  and  encamped 
in,  the  park  to  which  they  have  ever  since  exercised  the 
right  of  entry.  One  day  when  I  was  sitting  peacefully  at 
work  in  one  of  the  outer  rings  of  the  altar,  I  heard  the 
steady  tramp  of  many  booted  feet ;  and,  to  my  surprise, 
through  the  gateways  of  the  surrounding  walls  (the  very 
gateway  which  would  be  used  by  the  Emperor),  came  a 
company  of  the  Cameron  Highlanders.  Right  through 
and  up  the  steps  they  marched,  and  stood  round  admiring 
the  view  from  the  "  Centre  of  the  Universe." 

I  understand  that  very  few  Chinese  except  high  officials 
have  ever  seen  this  place,  it  being  difficult  for  them  to  ob- 
tain admission  ;  and  I  believe  no  Chinese  women  are  ever 
allowed  within  the  walls.  A  foreigner,  an  official  of  high 
rank  in  the  Chinese  Service,  drove  out  with  his  wife  to 
visit  this  place,  having  with  them  a  guest,  a  young  Chinese 
lady.  She  was  refused  admission,  and  nothing  would  in- 
duce the  gatekeeper  to  allow  her  within ;  so  my  friends, 
who  would  not  go  without  her,  returned  to  Peking  without 
seeing  the  temples. 

Although  the  ordinary  Chinaman  is  not  allowed  entrance, 
there  is  no  objection  made  to  the  native  servant  of  a  for- 
eigner :  my  boy  was  with  me  always,  and  was  in  great  glee 
at  seeing  such  a  place. 

From  Martin's  Lore  of  Cathay:  "When  taxed  with 
ingratitude,  in  neglecting  to  honour  that  Being  on  whom 


THE  TEMPLE  OF  HEAVEN     131 

they  depend  for  existence,  the  Chinese  uniformly  reply, 
4  It  is  not  ingratitude,  but  reverence,  that  prevents  our 
worship.  He  is  too  great  for  us  to  worship.  None  but 
the  Emperor  is  worthy  to  lay  an  offering  on  the  altar  of 
Heaven  ! '  In  conformity  with  this  sentiment  the  Emperor, 
as  the  high-priest  and  mediator  of  his  people,  celebrates  in 
Peking  the  worship  of  Heaven  with  imposing  ceremonies. 

"  Within  the  gates  of  the  southern  division  of  the  capi- 
tal, and  surrounded  by  a  sacred  grove,  so  extensive  that  the 
silence  of  its  deep  shade  is  never  broken  by  the  noises  of 
the  busy  world,  stands  the  Temple  of  Heaven. 

"  It  consists  of  a  single  tower,  whose  tiling  of  resplendent 
azure  is  intended  to  represent  the  form  and  colour  of  the 
aerial  vault. 

"  It  contains  no  image  and  the  solemn  rites  are  not  per- 
formed within  the  tower,  but  on  a  marble  altar  which  stands 
before  it ;  a  bullock  is  offered  once  a  year  as  a  burnt-offer- 
ing while  the  Master  of  the  Empire  prostrates  himself  in 
adoration  of  the  Spirit  of  the  Universe. 

"  This  is  the  high  place  of  Chinese  devotion,  and  the 
thoughtful  visitor  feels  that  he  ought  to  tread  its  courts 
with  unsandalled  feet." 

Dr.  Legge,  the  distinguished  translator  of  the  Chinese, 
visiting  Peking  (some  years  after  this  was  written),  actually 
"  put  his  shoes  from  off  his  feet,"  before  ascending  the  steps 
of  this  great  altar.  Yet,  in  1900,  this  sacred  spot  was  con- 
verted into  barracks  for  British  troops. 

"  For  no  vulgar  idolatry  has  entered  here ;  this  mountain 


I32  CHINA 

top  still  stands  above  the  waves  of  corruption,  and  on  this 
solitary  altar  there  still  rests  a  faint  ray  of  the  primeval 
faith. 

"The  tablet  which  represents  the  invisible  Deity,  is  in- 
scribed with  the  name  of  Shang  Li,  the  Supreme  Ruler ! 
and  as  we  contemplate  the  majesty  of  the  empire  prostrate 
before  it,  while  the  smoke  ascends  from  his  burning  sacri- 
fice, our  thoughts  are  irresistibly  carried  back  to  the  time 
when  the  King  of  Salem  officiated  as  '  Priest  of  the  Most 
High  God.' " 


THE  SUMMER  PALACE 

T.  HODGSON  LIDDELL 

I  HAD  noticed  that  a  sentry  was  placed  at  the  outer 
door  of  my  quarters  which  opened  on  to  the  court- 
yard in  front  of  the  chief  gates ;  he  presented  arms 
as  I  passed  out  to  find  a  double  line  of  fine-looking  soldiers 
drawn  up  near  my  door  across  to  one  of  the  side  gates. 
The  centre  gate  is  only  used  by  the  Imperial  family.  Be- 
tween these  lines  I  and  my  procession  passed  along,  to  be 
received  at  the  gateway  by  the  officer  of  the  guard  and  va- 
rious palace  officials.  Once  I  was  inside,  there  was  a  little 
less  formality.  The  mandarins  ranged  up  to  me,  and 
kindly  told  me  the  names,  etc.,  of  all  the  different  build- 
ings we  came  to.  The  first  was  a  large  hall — used,  I 
believe,  at  times  of  audience  as  a  sort  of  first  reception 
chamber.  Passing  by  and  going  around  this  we  quickly 
came  in  sight  of  a  large  and  beautiful  sheet  of  very  clear 
water,  with  several  islands  dotted  about ;  it  was  surrounded 
by  low  walls  with  fine-wrought  marble  balustrading.  On 
one  of  the  islands  can  be  seen  the  Dragon  Temple ;  and 
from  this  island  to  the  mainland  on  the  southern  side  is  the 
long  and  beautiful  marble  bridge  of  seventeen  arches.  At 
intervals  other  bridges  are  to  be  seen,  including  the  famous 


134  CHINA 

camel-backed  one  of  white  marble.  Also  there  are  orna- 
mental pavilions  with  red-pillared  walls. 

As  I  first  saw  this  palace  in  soft  autumn  sunlight,  the 
western  hills  bathed  in  light  but  wonderfully  soft  in  outline, 
the  distant  pagodas  and  temples  placed  on  various  emi- 
nences and  the  great  gleaming  yellow-roofed,  red-walled 
buildings  on  the  rugged  hillside,  their  roofs  of  various 
pavilions  just  appearing  out  of  the  masses  of  foliage,  it  was 
fairy-land ;  and  when  I  was  able  to  see  more  closely  various 
views  of  it,  its  great  beauty  became  more  and  more  im- 
pressed on  my  mind.  The  first  designer  of  this  lovely 
Summer  Palace — well  may  it  be  named  so — must  have 
had  a  true  appreciation  of  the  beautiful,  first  of  all,  in  the 
choice  of  such  a  delightful  site.  That  bold  hill,  with  its 
southern  face  running  down  to  a  marsh  which  was  easily 
made  into  a  lake,  was  certainly  chosen  by  some  one  with 
the  true  artistic  sense ;  the  same  sense  is  shown  by  the 
wonderful  way  in  which  the  buildings  were  not  only  de- 
signed but  placed  to  the  best  advantage,  separately  and  in 
the  mass. 

The  lake  is  largely  artificial.  It  was  a  piece  of  marshy 
land,  the  waters  from  the  famous  "  Jade  Fountain  "  run- 
ning through  it.  On  the  northern  side  is  the  sharp  and 
abrupt  hill  on  which  the  main  buildings  are  placed,  all 
centred  in  the  Great  Temple  built  on  a  foundation  of  the 
most  solid  masonry  one  can  imagine,  composed  of  immense 
blocks  of  stone  very  closely  laid.  This  foundation  rises 
to  a  great  height ;  and  the  front  is  broken  by  the  two  stair- 


THE  SUMMER  PALACE  135 

cases,  which  in  three  sections  on  either  side  lead  up  and 
meet  on  the  top,  which  forms  a  large  space,  from  the 
centre  of  which  rises  the  chief  temple  with  its  enormous 
gilded  image.  The  temple  rises  in  three  great  tiers,  each 
with  its  yellow  roof  bordered  with  green.  Leading  up  be- 
hind this  gorgeous  building  are  more  stairs  to  another 
temple — The  Myriad  Buddha  which  is  on  the  highest 
point  of  the  hill.  It  is  entirely  faced  with  porcelain  tiles 
of  yellow  interspersed  with  green,  with  a  white  marble 
triple  gateway  in  front.  On  each  side  of  this  central  group 
and  cunningly  placed  on  the  steep  hillside  are  various 
pavilions  and  memorials — some  with  yellow,  some  with 
green  tiled  roofs.  There  are  some  stone  tablets  and  bronze 
tablets  to  famous  persons  of  the  past. 

On  the  western  side  is  that  wonderful  work  of  art  and 
marvel  of  bronze,  the  Bronze  Pavilion,  wholly  made  of 
fine  bronze :  even  the  tiles  are  bronze  and  the  floors  and 
interior  furniture — of  which  little  now,  I  am  sorry  to  say, 
is  left.  It  is  a  reproval  to  Western  civilization  that  such 
beautiful  things  should  be  pillaged.  Of  the  wonderfully 
wrought  open-work  windows  some  are  gone — taken  away, 
I  believe,  in  1900 ;  but  I  was  glad  to  hear  that  the  British 
prevented  the  entire  pillage  of  this  place.  It  would  be  a 
gracious  act  of  the  owners  of  those  window-frames,  which 
are,  I  believe,  still  in  China,  were  they  to  restore  them  to 
this  unique  building. 

After  a  general  inspection  of  this  part  we  went  on  board 
some  barges  and  were  rowed  across  the  lake  to  inspect  the 


136  CHINA 

Dragon  Temple  and  the  various  bridges  and  buildings. 
From  the  water  there  is  a  wonderful  view  of  the  whole 
central  group  of  temples  and  this  position,  by  the  way,  is 
entirely  for  state  ceremonials  and  worship,  and  is  enclosed 
by  a  red  wall  which  runs  along  the  top  and  down  the  sides 
of  the  hill. 

In  front  of  all  the  group  and  on  the  water's  edge  is  the 
Grand  Pailau,  through  which,  by  the  water,  is  obtained  the 
state  audience-hall  and  temples.  This  pailau  is  a  gor- 
geous thing  in  itself,  with  its  huge  red  pillars  dividing  the 
usual  three  gateways;  these  pillars  set  on  white  marble 
plinths,  and  carrying  over  them  gaily  coloured  and  gilded 
open-work  and  carvings  of  dragons  and  other  mythical 
creatures.  Over  all,  and  divided  in  three,  are  the  blazing 
yellow  roofs. 

This  building  is  backed  by  the  first  entrance-hall,  which 
in  turn  leads  through  to  others  and  so  reaches  the  state 
audience-chamber.  Each  hall  rises  above  the  other,  and 
over  all  are  the  solid  stone  wall  and  towering  temples. 
The  great  group  of  architecture,  all  reflected  in  the  clear 
waters  of  the  lake,  made  a  picture  hard  to  equal.  I  had  not 
time,  alas  !  to  attempt  to  reproduce  it  on  paper  or  canvas. 

Looking  from  the  steps  of  the  entrance-hall  one  sees  the 
pailau  clear  and  massive  against  the  lake  and  sky,  and, 
through  it,  the  Dragon  Temple  with  a  glimpse  of  the 
Seventeen-Arch  Bridge. 

Going  on  by  boat  we  reached  the  curious  "  Marble 
Junk."  Built  about  two  hundred  years  ago,  it  has  at 


THE  SUMMER  PALACE  137 

various  times  been  added  to;  but  the  additions  are  not 
beautiful,  nor  do  they  improve  the  architecture.  The 
original  boat,  in  form  like  an  old  state  junk,  is  good,  being 
built  of  blocks  of  white  marble  and  finely  wrought,  the 
stern  rising  high,  and  the  whole  very  realistic.  Built  on 
this  fine  old  work  and  rising  to  some  height  is  a  tawdry 
erection  of  wood,  painted  to  imitate  marble.  The  upper 
floor  consists  of  tea-rooms  for  the  Imperial  family  and  their 
guests.  Again,  to  meet  modern  ideas,  excrescences  of 
marble  have  been  added  to  imitate  roughly  paddle-wheels  ; 
this  is  badly  done,  obviously  out  of  keeping  and  proportion 
with  the  original  structure;  but  the  added  paddle-wheels 
seem  to  suggest  that  the  Chinese  mind  of  some  years  ago 
really  wished  to  adopt  Western  ideas,  and  used  this  means 
of  showing  this  desire. 

Adjoining  the  Marble  Junk  is  a  fine  marble  bridge,  with 
sculptured  lions  on  the  piers  and  a  well-formed  double  roof 
over  the  centre  arch.  Near  by  are  the  boat-houses,  in 
which  are  kept  the  gorgeous  state-barges  and  the  modern 
motor-boats  now  used  on  the  lake. 

Away  across,  on  the  southern  side  of  the  lake,  stands  the 
grand  casting  in  bronze  of  an  ox.  I  call  it  a  casting,  but 
much  work  must  have  been  given  to  this  artistic  master- 
piece after  it  left  the  founder's  hands.  It  stands  massive 
and  alone.  What  masters  of  bronze  work  the  Chinese  are  ! 
Look  at  the  great  lions  near  the  Grand  Pailau,  finer  even 
than  those  at  the  Lama  Temple ;  think  of  the  storks  and 
deer  at  the  Winter  Palace. 


I38  CHINA 

I  believe  Italian  priests  were  called  in  to  help  design  this 
Summer  Palace  ;  and,  looking  at  the  whole  from  across  the 
lake,  I  could  see  evidence  of  their  work.  That  central 
group,  on  its  enormous  stone  foundation,  shows  it  dis- 
tinctly in  the  severity  of  the  stonework ;  even  the  temple 
on  the  top,  in  spite  of  the  Chinese  roofs,  has  a  touch  of 
Italian,  and  I  could  almost  imagine  I  was  on  an  Italian 
lake,  looking  at  some  fairy  palace.  Italian  or  Chinese — I 
care  not  which — it  is  extremely  beautiful.  Could  one  wish 
for  a  more  ideal  place  in  which  to  dream  away  the  sweet 
summer  ? 

The  pavilions  of  the  Empress  Dowager  and  of  the 
Emperor  and  Empress,  are  close  to  the  lake,  nearer  to  the 
entrance  of  the  palace  grounds  than  the  state  buildings, 
which  they  differ  from  in  being  roofed  with  gray  tiles ; 
they  are  not  large,  but  very  dainty  and  the  word  pavilion 
describes  them  well,  as  nearly  all  are  of  one  storey  and  un- 
pretentious. They  border  on  the  lake,  with  only  a  narrow 
paved  footway  in  front  balustraded  with  white  marble  and 
approached  by  steps  at  which  passengers  can  land  from 
boats. 

In  front  of  the  Empress  Dowager's  are  two  tall  slender 
pillars  of  wood  arched  over  at  the  top,  from  which  hangs 
a  large  electric  arc-lamp ;  these  tall  pillars  are  decorated 
with  white  dragons  on  a  green  ground.  Under  the  eaves 
of  the  pavilion  are  rows  of  electric  lights.  The  windows 
are  glazed  inside  elaborate  woodwork,  much  of  which  is 
painted  a  brilliant  red.  To  see  all  this  lighted  up  at  night 


THE  SUMMER  PALACE  139 

and  reflected  in  the  clear  waters  of  the  lake  must  be  very 
beautiful.  I  could  imagine  it  to  be  somewhat  like  parts  of 
Venice  on  a  fete  night,  with  the  addition  of  the  more  pic- 
turesque Chinese  figures. 

The  gardens  of  these  pavilions  are  neither  large  nor  par- 
ticularly beautiful,  but  the  whole  palace  is  a  natural  garden, 
and  so  lovely  that  one  does  not  miss  the  artificial  garden  of 
Western  style. 

From  these  gardens  to  the  state  buildings  and  temples 
there  is  a  covered  way  raised  slightly  from  the  ground, 
paved  and  roofed  with  tiles,  the  roof  being  supported  on 
timber  posts  and  beams,  all  of  which  are  most  elaborately 
decorated  and  painted  with  many  quaint  designs. 


THE  MING  TOMBS  AND  GREAT  WALL 

PIERRE  LEROT-BEAULIEU 

ON  leaving  Peking  by  the  Northern  Gate,  one 
crosses  a  sandy  and  barren  space  occupied  in  the 
Thirteenth  Century  by  a  part  of  the  town  which 
has  now  disappeared.  Then  come  some  outlying  towns, 
mainly  inhabited  by  merchants,  succeeded  by  the  admirably 
cultivated  plain  which  extends  from  the  north  of  Peking  to 
the  foot  of  the  hills.  It  is  more  barren  to  the  south,  and 
trees  only  grow  close  to  the  villages,  which  are  invariably 
surrounded^by  groups  of  weeping  willows.  In  this  region 
the  soil  and  the  climate  are  too  dry  to  allow  the  cultivation 
of  rice,  but  a  crop  of  winter  wheat  is  obtained,  and  I  have 
seen  it  sown  and  even  appearing  above  the  ground  in  the 
month  of  October.  It  does  not  freeze  in  the  very  dry 
earth,  although  the  thermometer  falls  twenty  degrees  and 
the  snow  is  never  very  deep.  The  crop  of  wheat  is 
harvested  during  May.  Presently  you  see  fields  of  sor- 
ghum, millet,  the  staple  food  of  the  people  in  these  parts 
and  also  of  buckwheat.  On  all  sides  the  peasantry  are 
hard  at  work,  usually  alongside  strong  wagons,  better  built 
than  those  of  the  Siberian  mujiks  and  drawn  either  by  two 
mules  or  two  horses,  or  sometimes  by  three  little  donkeys. 
In  the  villages  you  can  sometimes  see  the  grain  threshed  or 


THE  MING  TOMBS  AND  GREAT  WALL   141 

the  long  leaves  of  the  sorghum  being  bound  in  sheaves, 
which  when  dried  are  made  into  mats  and  screens.  The 
women  help  in  the  latter  work,  which  invariably  takes 
place  close  to  their  doors,  for  they  are  never  seen  in  the 
fields.  The  roads  are  generally  very  bad,  but  have  not 
always  been  so.  Many  of  the  bridges  are  still  in  a  superb 
condition,  although  the  fine  flagstones  with  which  they  are 
paved  are  in  a  shocking  condition.  Others,  however,  are 
in  absolute  ruin,  and  the  rivers  which  they  once  spanned 
have  consequently  to  be  forded.  Everything  points  to  the 
fact  that  we  are  passing  over  a  once  magnificent  highroad, 
and  effectively  it  leads  to  the  Tombs  of  the  Mings,  which 
explains  why  it  was  built  in  such  a  sumptuous  manner  by 
that  Dynasty,  as  well  as  the  state  of  abandonment  into 
which  it  has  fallen  since  it  has  come  into  the  hands  of  the 
Manchus,  who  dethroned  the  Mings  in  1644. 

Very  few  places  I  have  ever  visited  have  produced  upon 
me  a  greater  impression  of  grandeur  than  the  amphitheatre 
formed  by  the  lofty  hills  on  whose  last  slopes  stand  the 
Tombs  of  the  thirteen  Emperors  of  the  Ming  Dynasty. 
Each  of  these  monuments  is  formed  of  an  aggregation  of 
buildings  shaded  by  magnificent  trees,  that  present  a  strik- 
ing contrast  to  the  usual  gray  barrenness  of  Chinese  hills. 
The  broad  road  which  leads  to  them,  once  paved  but  now 
in  ruins,  passes  under  a  superb  triumphal  arch  into  the 
silent  valley,  which  seems  deserted,  although  in  reality  it  is 
highly  cultivated ;  the  little  villages  clustering  at  the  foot 
of  the  heights,  too,  are,  as  a  rule,  difficult  to  make  out. 


i42  CHINA 

After  passing  under  numerous  elegant  gateways,  supported 
by  winged  columns,  we  at  length  arrive  at  a  gigantic  alley 
of  colossal  monoliths,  representing  figures  of  animals  and 
monsters  alternately  sitting  and  crouching,  and  statues  of 
famous  legislators  and  warriors.  Roads  radiate  towards 
each  of  the  Tombs,  of  which  I  only  visited  that  of  the  first 
Ming  Emperor  who  reigned  in  Peking. 

After  having  passed  through  a  high  wall  by  a  porch  with 
three  badly-kept  gates,  we  crossed  a  spacious  courtyard 
planted  with  trees,  and  presently  entered  the  great  hall. 
Before  the  whole  length  of  the  facade  extends  several  flights 
of  marble  steps  with  exquisitely  sculptured  balustrades. 
The  hall  itself  is  not  less  than  200  feet  long  by  about 
eighty  feet  wide  and  forty  feet  in  height.  It  is  nearly 
empty,  and  at  first  you  can  only  perceive  the  forty  gigantic 
wooden  columns,  each  formed  of  the  trunk  of  a  tree,  that 
support  the  roof,  and  which  two  men  cannot  embrace. 
These  columns  are  said  to  have  come  from  the  confines  of 
Indo-China.  In  the  midst  of  them,  half-hidden  away,  is  a 
small  altar,  ornamented  with  a  few  commonplace  China 
vases,  which  are  crumbling  to  pieces  and  full  of  dust.  Be- 
yond the  altar,  enclosed  in  a  sort  of  tabernacle,  is  the  tablet 
inscribed  with  the  deceased  Emperor's  name  in  three 
Chinese  characters.  His  body  lies  beyond,  at  the  end  of  a 
gallery  a  mile  long,  which  penetrates  straight  into  the  heart 
of  the  hill,  but  is  walled  up  a  short  distance  from  the  en- 
trance, which  one  reaches  through  two  courtyards  separated 
by  a  portico.  From  the  lofty  tower  that  rises  over  this 


THE  MING  TOMBS  AND  GREAT  WALL   143 

entrance,  the  walls  of  which,  by  the  way,  are  embellished 
with  names  which  numerous  Chinese  and  a  few  Europeans 
have  been  vulgar  enough  to  scratch  on  the  walls  with  the 
points  of  their  knives,  the  view  includes  the  whole  semi- 
circle of  hills,  as  well  as  all  the  Tombs,  which,  by  reason 
of  the  very  simplicity  of  their  design,  create  an  impression 
of  extreme  grandeur.  Their  erection  must  have  cost  as 
great  an  amount  of  labour  as  that  which  was  bestowed  by 
the  Egyptians  upon  the  sepulchres  of  their  Pharaohs. 

The  Great  Wall  of  China  is  another  colossal  under- 
taking, in  order  to  reach  which  you  take  the  highroad  to 
Mongolia  that  passes  through  the  Pa-ta-ling  Gate  at  the 
extremity  of  the  pass  of  Nan-kow.  This  highroad  which 
for  centuries  has  been  daily  traversed  by  long  caravans  of 
camels  engaged  in  the  traffic  between  Mongolia,  Siberia 
and  China,  was  formerly  paved  with  blocks  of  granite,  of 
which  no  trace  is  now  to  be  seen,  either  on  that  part  of  the 
road  in  the  little  town  of  Nan-kow,  or  in  the  difficult 
mountain  pass,  and  the  traveller  may  therefore  conclude 
that  they  have  either  been  used  in  the  construction  of 
houses  or  washed  away  by  some  torrent.  Nan-kow  is  a 
walled  town,  like  almost  all  those  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
Peking,  including  the  curious  old  suburb  of  Chao-yung- 
kwan,  over  one  of  the  doors  of  which  there  is  an  inscription 
in  six  languages,  one  of  which  has  not  yet  been  deciphered. 
Everywhere  on  the  mountainsides  towers  and  picturesque 
ruins  of  fortifications  manifest  how  great  has  ever  been  the 
fear  of  the  Chinese  of  the  Tartars  and  Mongols,  forprotec- 


144  CHINA 

tion  against  whom  the  Great  Wall  was  built.  It  is  divided 
into  two  parts,  the  inner  and  the  outer  wall,  the  first  of 
which  extends  for  nearly  1,560  miles  from  Shan-hai-kwan, 
on  the  Gulf  of  Pe-chi-li  into  the  Province  of  Kan-su  on 
the  upper  Yellow  River.  Built  two  hundred  years  before 
our  era,  needless  to  say,  it  has  often  been  repaired  and  re- 
built. Near  the  sea  it  is  constructed  of  stone,  but  brick 
has  been  used  on  the  inland  portions.  In  thickness  it 
varies  from  sixteen  feet  to  twenty  feet,  and  is  about  the 
same  in  height,  but  to  the  west  it  is  nothing  like  so  lofty. 

The  inner  wall,  which  dates  from  the  Sixth  Century, 
was  almost  entirely  reconstructed  by  the  Mings  in  the 
Sixteenth  Century  and  is  500  miles  long.  This  is  the 
wall  to  be  seen  from  Pa-ta-ling,  passing  over  the  hill,  and 
then  proceeding  right  and  left  to  climb  in  zigzag  fashion  to 
the  very  summit  of  the  mountains.  It  is  constructed  after 
the  model  of  the  walls  of  Peking  on  a  substructure  of  stone, 
with  two  rows  of  brick  battlements.  The  top  is  paved, 
and  forms  a  roadway  eleven  feet  in  width.  Its  height 
varies,  according  to  the  irregularity  of  the  land,  between 
twelve  feet  and  twenty  feet,  and  at  about  every  300  feet 
there  are  towers  twice  the  height  of  the  wall,  also  sur- 
rounded by  bastions  and  battlements.  Although  less  im- 
posing than  the  Wall  of  Peking,  the  Great  Wall  of  China 
does  not  deserve  the  flippant  remarks  that  have  been  made 
about  it.  Against  an  enemy  unprovided  with  artillery,  and 
horsemen  like  the  Mongols  and  Tartars,  it  must  have  pre- 
sented a  very  serious  obstruction,  and  if  occasionally  they 


THE  MING  TOMBS  AND  GREAT  WALL   145 

have  been  able  to  scale  it,  it  has  generally  resisted  every 
attempt  at  invasion.  Although  it  has  not  been  used  under 
the  present  Dynasty,  which  is  of  Tartar  origin,  it  has  re- 
mained, thanks  to  the  care  bestowed  upon  it  in  former 
times,  one  of  the  best  preserved  monuments  in  China. 


NANKING  AND  THE  MING  TOMB 

J.  DE  J. 

THE  morning  sun  gilds  the  earth  of  the  banks  and 
brightens  the  green  of  the  willows.  Mountains 
encircle  the  horizon,  beautiful  violet  mountains 
with  wooded  slopes.  A  luminous  line  of  water  cuts  cleanly 
through  this  picture  and  upon  it  here  and  there  white  sails 
are  shining.  The  water  has  reflections  of  apple  green, — 
colours  of  a  strange  world.  The  air  is  soft  and  delicious : 
we  breathe  spring  !  The  Yangtsze  is  like  a  lake.  Here 
is  Cauhia — the  anchorage  of  Nanking.  Our  anchor  drops 
into  the  deep  near  two  big  Chinese  gunboats  at  the  open- 
ing of  a  channel  where  a  convoy  of  large  junks  with  mat 
sails  is  sailing  away.  On  the  left  bank  a  sort  of  camp  is 
seen  in  the  shadowy  distance.  It  has  the  appearance  of  a 
feudal  castle,  notwithstanding  its  gate  with  a  double  and 
contorted  roof. 

Nanking  is  on  the  right  bank.  The  town  is  invisible. 
We  see,  however,  two  forts  crowning  the  heights  overlook- 
ing the  anchorage  and  a  conical  mountain  with  its  sharp 
silhouette  against  the  clear  sky.  This  is  the  Golden  Hill, 
where  lies  the  first  of  the  Mings.  Its  name  is  often  used 
by  the  literati  to  designate  the  town  itself.  A  little  peak 
rises  above  the  willows  and  clumps  of  bamboo  and  the  dis- 


NANKING  AND  THE  MING  TOMB     147 

tant  pagoda  and  the  temples  of  Confucius.  Looking  atten- 
tively, we  perceive  a  line  of  battlements  that  bars  the  valley. 
It  is  the  extreme  north  of  the  enclosure  and  runs  for  about 
a  mile  along  the  Yangtsze. 

A  sampan  brought  us  here  at  half-past  six  o'clock.  The 
suburb  where  we  landed  borders  the  length  of  the  canal 
which  follows  the  walls,  half  a  mile  away,  and  connects 
the  river  with  the  southern  part  of  the  town.  At  the  bot- 
tom of  a  squalid  street,  lined  by  miserable  shops  in  which 
baskets  of  horrible  big-bellied  and  yellowish  fish  and  half 
rotten  vegetables  were  exposed,  we  gained  the  canal.  Here 
some  junks  were  being  rowed ;  and  on  one  of  them  some 
Chinese  sailors  were  beating  a  gong,  making  the  classical 
thunder  of  the  theatre.  At  the  same  time  they  uttered 
cries.  This  was  done  to  call  up  a  breeze. 

A  little  further,  and  we  reached  the  European  road  and 
stepped  into  the  rickshas.  It  required  real  courage  to 
venture  into  these  dilapidated  and  shaky  vehicles  drawn  by 
dirty  beggars. 

The  road  enters  Nanking  by  the  gate  of  the  west.  It  is 
very  high  and  surmounted  by  a  double  and  curved  roof. 
The  battlemented  walls  have  an  imposing  appearance.  The 
opening  is  thick  :  we  pass  through  a  real  tunnel.  But  we 
are  in  no  more  of  a  city  than  we  were  before.  A  road 
bordered  with  clipped  willows  runs  through  the  fresh  green 
country  with  its  groves  of  bamboo  here  and  there.  Then 
it  leads  suddenly  to  a  little  eminence  on  which  a  monu- 
mental gate  rises.  It  has  three  openings  of  thick  masonry. 


i48  CHINA 

The  tower  that  crowns  it  is  composed  of  blood-red  bricks. 
This  is  the  Red  Gate.  We  now  enter  a  more  inhabited 
region,  but  nothing  suggests  a  city.  It  is  supposed  that 
this  part  of  Nanking  has  never  been  more  populated.  This 
has  always  been  the  place  for  the  country-seats  and  gardens 
of  princes.  We  follow  a  path  that  is  partly  paved  ;  and 
around  us  we  now  discern  a  large  and  badly-kept  town. 
Through  the  greenery  we  see  the  lightning-rods  of  the 
Methodist  mission  and  a  little  further  the  bell-tower  and 
cross  of  the  Catholic  mission. 

We  are  received  here  with  charming  hospitality  ;  and,  as 
soon  as  we  have  announced  our  determination  to  visit  the 
Ming  tomb,  Father  G.  offers  to  accompany  us.  Three 
fresh  asses  are  brought  and  off  we  go.  We  take  a  paved 
road  which  leads  to  the  Gate  of  the  East.  We  have  to 
cross  the  entire  city.  However,  we  do  not  enter  the  rich 
and  most  populous  quarters  of  Nanking.  These  are  in  the 
south  of  the  enclosure,  where  are  the  animated  streets  and 
fine  shops  with  gilded  signs.  All  the  northern  part  seems 
to  be  a  conglomeration  of  large  villages  often  separated  by 
fields  and  immense  tracks  of  ground.  Here  are  ruin,  misery 
and  shocking  poverty.  The  population,  in  proportion  as  we 
advance,  is  composed  of  Tartars.  The  men  can  barely 
be  distinguished  from  the  Chinese,  but  the  women  wear 
long  robes.  On  the  other  side  of  the  canal,  crossed  here 
by  a  stone  bridge  of  a  single  arch,  is  the  Tartar  city.  It  is 
not  very  thickly  settled :  on  the  open  plains  the  cavalry  is 
manoeuvring.  Let  us  leave  on  our  left  the  twisted  roofs 


NANKING  AND  THE  MING  TOMB     149 

of  yellow  brick  marked  with  the  five-clawed  dragon,  and 
the  Temple  containing  the  Emperor's  tablet,  and  enter  the 
Imperial  City. 

The  gate  is  here :  a  gate  heavy  and  massive,  between 
whose  worn  and  blackened  stones  earth  and  straggling  grass 
are  seen,  recalling  certain  old  arches  of  ruined  monasteries. 
Of  the  three  entrances,  two  are  walled  up  :  that  on  the  left, 
through  which  passed  officers  of  the  court ;  and  the  winding 
one  on  the  right  reserved  for  the  people.  There  remains 
only  the  principal  way, — the  Emperor's.  On  the  old  pav- 
ing stones  over  which  clattered  the  horses'  hoofs  of 
Hungwu,  the  first  of  the  Mings,  our  little  asses  trot.  Now 
we  are  beneath  the  vault :  what  do  we  see  there  ?  What 
remains  of  this  palace  which  saw  the  glory  of  the  Sungs  and 
the  Tangs, — those  old  forgotten  dynasties  ?  Nothing : 
nothing  but  the  five  stone  bridges  over  the  stagnant  canal 
leading  to  the  devastated  spot  with  its  heap  of  red  and  yel- 
low bricks.  Even  the  ground  is  broken  ;  and  such  is  the 
whole  of  Nanking !  Time  passes  :  the  new  generation 
builds  its  frail  dwellings  on  the  ruins  of  those  of  their 
fathers.  To-morrow,  a  fire  or  a  revolt,  will  destroy  them 
in  their  turn  and  a  new  town  will  arise :  the  present  will 
have  become  the  past ;  and  the  past  of  to-day  will  be  effaced 
beneath  the  ruins  of  to-morrow.  Who  knows  how  many 
times  Nanking  has  been  rebuilt !  Before  becoming  the 
capital  of  China,  she  was  a  powerful  kingdom.  After  the 
departure  of  the  Mings,  she  remained  one  of  the  first  cities 
of  the  Empire  until  the  Tai-pings  demolished  it  j  to-mor- 


150  CHINA 

row,  if  China  is  dismembered,  she  will,  perhaps,  take  her 
ancient  rank. 

An  immense  plain  unfolds  its  melancholy  undulations 
before  us.  In  such  a  thickly-settled  country,  the  utter 
desolation  of  this  corner  of  the  earth  expresses  something 
distressful.  The  place  is  haunted  by  death.  In  front  of 
us  on  a  mound  two  constructions  show  their  gray  mass 
against  the  pale  sky.  One  is  a  sort  of  triumphal  arch  ;  the 
other,  a  rectangular  monument  in  the  form  of  an  oratory. 
On  the  left,  other  gray  forms  are  outlined :  stone  animals 
that  guard  the  avenue  to  the  tomb.  This  avenue,  how- 
ever, commences  much  further  away  in  the  vast  plain  hid- 
den from  us  by  this  rise  in  the  ground,  just  where  the 
sombre  roofs  of  the  temple  are  visible  among  the  trees  and 
fields.  Here  is  no  vegetation :  a  few  bachelor's  buttons, 
some  scentless  violets,  a  sort  of  blue  flower  resembling 
lilacs  and  a  few  anemones  appear  among  the  gray  stones. 
Here  are  also  some  remains  of  trenches  and  ruined  walls ; 
and,  in  the  background,  the  Golden  Hill  on  whose  bare 
flank  we  see  the  black,  heavy  and  massive  tomb. 

The  Tai-pings  camped  here.  Everywhere  we  see  traces 
of  their  vandalism.  They  ravaged  this  then  wooded  spot, 
where  the  silence  of  the  imperial  sepulchre  was  veiled  with 
freshness  and  shade ;  and  they  damaged  the  walls  of  the 
arches  and  oratories,  the  colossal  animals  and  even  the 
tomb  itself.  Blood  flowed  on  the  slopes;  and  it  was  from 
the  very  mausoleum  of  Hungwu  on  the  top  of  the  moun- 
tain that  the  rebels  precipitated  themselves  into  the  van- 


NANKING  AND  THE  MING  TOMB     151 

quished  city,  where  the  English  had  formerly  planted  their 
batteries.  That  was  the  weak  spot.  The  mountain  domi- 
nates and  commands  the  whole  of  Nanking. 

It  was  by  the  Gate  of  the  East  that  Gordon  and  Li-Hung- 
Chang  entered  submissive  Nanking,  after  eleven  years'  oc- 
cupation and  pillage  by  the  Tai-pings. 

Opposite  us,  the  rectangular  monument  that  we  had 
been  noticing  and  found  so  difficult  to  understand,  we  now 
see  is  a  great  tortoise.  We  enter  the  great  enclosure. 
Some  of  the  bricks  still  retain  the  imperial  yellow  hue. 
The  tortoise  stands  on  its  marble  pedestal  with  outstretched 
neck.  Its  head  is  a  cross  between  that  of  a  seal  and  that 
of  a  dog.  The  beast  is  composed  of  a  single  block  of 
marble  to  which  time  has  given  a  greenish  coating  and  a 
roughish  grain  so  that  sometimes  it  is  mistaken  for  granite. 
It  is  about  three  yards  high.  On  its  back  rises  a  stele,  also 
of  marble,  with  a  long  inscription  in  Chinese  characters — 
setting  forth  the  exploits  of  Hungwu. 

Beyond  the  monument  the  avenue  turns  towards  the 
east,  and,  after  traversing  a  ravine,  passes  between  the  two 
rows  of  animals  intended  to  protect  the  tomb  against  the 
Koues,  or  evil  spirits.  These  animals  are  placed  in  pairs. 
They  stand  opposite  one  another,  leaving  between  them  a 
narrow  passage,  regulated  by  rites  according  to  the  feng 
schui  of  the  place.  These  are  unicorns,  tigers,  camels, 
elephants,  horses  and  other  animals  of  unknown  species. 
There  are  two  pairs  of  each  kind  :  one  kneeling  and  the 
other  standing.  The  sculptor  who  carved  them  out  of  a 


i52  CHINA 

single  block  was  certainly  not  a  Barye.  He  made  them 
colossal ;  but  it  is  hard  to  find  the  slightest  trace  of  art. 
The  elephants  are  over  five  yards  high ;  their  heads  are 
enormous  and  out  of  proportion.  One  of  the  horses  lies, 
with  broken  legs,  in  a  ravine  which  the  waters  have  dug 
below  its  pedestal. 

This  avenue  of  animals  winds  and  therefore  the  effect 
of  the  whole  is  spoiled.  The  avenue  to  the  Ming  tombs 
in  Peking  is  straight.  Constructed  according  to  the  same 
principles  as  this  one,  it  is  in  a  perfect  state  of  preservation, 
and  it  requires  a  special  permission  to  visit  it.  All  the 
dynasties  of  China  have  rendered  great  honours  to  the  pre- 
ceding ones,  even  after  having  dispossessed  them.  Each 
year  sacrifices  are  made  at  the  tomb  of  the  Mings  in  Peking, 
and  also  among  the  ruins  of  Nanking. 

In  the  mind  of  Hungwu  the  avenues  leading  to  the 
tombs  of  his  successors  here  at  Nanking  should  radiate 
from  the  symbolic  tortoise ;  but  his  successor  carried  the 
seat  of  government  and  imperial  sepulchre  to  Peking. 
Hungwu  rests  alone  in  the  place  he  selected  to  watch,  even 
after  death,  over  the  ancient  capital  extending  below  his 
feet. 


SHANGHAI 

T.  HODGSON  LIDDELL 

^HE  approach  to  Shanghai  from  the  sea  offers  a 
great  contrast  to  that  at  Hong  Kong.  Here  no 
towering  Peak  greets  the  traveller's  eye  ;  but  as 
the  ship  enters  the  mouth  of  the  Whangpoo  at  Woo-sung 
(the  Pilot  Station),  twelve  miles  from  the  city,  the  nearness 
of  the  great  trading  centre  of  the  Far  East  is  suggested  by 
the  large  numbers  of  steam-craft,  tugs  and  dredgers  inter- 
spersed with  numerous  native  boats  of  quaint  design,  large 
and  small,  plying  busily  hither  and  thither. 

The  waterway  is  here  a  mile  or  more  in  width,  bor- 
dered by  a  flat  landscape,  almost  Dutch  in  character  though 
not  in  colour.  The  course  of  the  river  has  been  altered 
considerably  from  time  to  time,  by  Nature  and  man,  and 
the  hard  task  of  keeping  open  this  great  commercial  high- 
way is  the  duty  of  European  conservators,  who  have  their 
hands  full. 

Off  Woo-sung  the  great  liners  lie  anchored  until  lightened 
of  part  of  their  cargo,  that  they  may  pass  up  the  river  and 
one  may  see  the  white  hull  of  an  Empress  or  the  dark  mass 
of  the  P.  and  O.  or  German  mails,  or  the  blue  funnels  of 
a  Holt  cargo  steamer.  Here  passengers  are  transferred  to 
the  launches  waiting  to  take  them  up  to  Shanghai,  on  the 


154  CHINA 

last  stage  of  their  long  journey.  The  yellow  waters  of  the 
Whangpoo  run  swiftly,  and  this,  added  to  the  strong  tide, 
makes  navigation  no  easy  matter. 

Soon  we  began  to  see  buildings  of  European  character, 
plain  and  solid,  and  factories  with  tall  chimneys ;  we  could 
read  the  names  of  European  commercial  firms;  and  when 
we  got  up  as  far  as  Hongkew  we  realized  that  indeed  we 
had  reached  the  commercial  metropolis  of  the  Far  East,  re- 
minding us  of  some  of  our  ports  at  home  in  the  similarity 
of  the  river  approach  and  traffic. 

I  was  met  on  landing  at  the  wharf  by  my  relatives,  and 
if  it  had  not  been  for  the  number  of  coolies  and  rickshas, 
could  almost  imagine  myself  at  home  ;  but  as  I  was  driven 
away  along  the  fine  Bund,  the  chief  thoroughfare  facing  the 
river,  on  which  are  all  the  finest  commercial  buildings, 
banks,  and  the  fine  Shanghai  Club,  I  soon  saw  evidence  of 
the  mixed  nature  of  the  population. 

There  is  no  sharp  line  of  demarcation  in  the  European 
settlement  of  Shanghai  between  the  streets  inhabited  by  the 
Chinese  and  those  occupied  by  Europeans ;  the  houses  in 
the  Nankin  Road,  for  instance,  changing  their  character  as 
one  proceeds,  although  the  native  city  is  and  always  has 
been  walled  in  and  quite  separate  from  the  foreign  settlement. 

The  native-built  houses  usually  differ  from  those  built  by 
Europeans,  in  being  highly  ornate  and  more  cheaply  and 
slightly  constructed.  The  shop-signs  in  the  Nankin  and 
Foo-chow  Roads  and  other  thoroughfares  are  wonderfully 
picturesque  in  red,  gold  and  other  colours  and  of  all  shapes 


SHANGHAI  155 

and  sizes.  Passing  along,  one  notices  crowds  at  the  upper 
windows,  drinking  tea  and  smoking ;  while  in  the  street, 
side  by  side  with  the  fine  equipage  of  the  foreign  merchant, 
may  be  seen  the  wheelbarrow,  pushed  by  the  coolie  in 
scanty  attire,  carrying  perhaps  a  whole  family ;  a  single 
passenger  must  be  tilted  to  one  side,  to  keep  the  barrow 
balanced.  A  wonderful  medley  of  East  and  West ! 
rickshas  speeding  along,  bicycles  ridden  by  natives  and 
foreigners,  and  even  the  latest  in  motor  cars,  for  which 
there  must  be  a  great  future.  The  Chinese  are  taking  up 
motors ;  they  love  speed ;  but  as  yet  they  can  only  use  a 
motor  in  the  foreign  settlement  where  are  roads  fit  to  drive 
on.  I  have  heard  that  on  first  seeing  a  motor  car  a  China- 
man remarked  :  "  What  thing  !  No  pushee,  no  pullee,  go 
like  hellee  !  Hi  yah  !  " 

The  American  Concession  of  Hongkew  is  reached  by 
crossing  the  new  iron  bridge  over  the  Soochow  Creek,  and 
has  a  long  and  valuable  frontage  on  the  Whangpoo  River, 
where  large  "  go  downs  "  (warehouses)  and  wharves,  ship- 
building and  engineering  yards,  are  springing  up  on  every 
side.  Lying  back  from  the  river  is  a  large  residential 
quarter.  In  the  opposite  direction  by  the  Nankin  Road  one 
reaches  the  fine  Racecourse  and  Recreation  Ground,  which 
only  a  few  years  ago  was  open  fields.  Here  the  foreign 
residents  of  sporting  proclivities  formerly  held  their  "  paper- 
hunts."  They  are  obliged  to  go  further  afield  now;  but 
with  commendable  foresight  this  fine  open  space  was 
rescued  from  the  hands  of  the  builder  and  thus  preserved  for 


156  CHINA 

future  generations.  Beyond  the  Racecourse  is  the  Bubbling 
Well  Road,  so  called  from  the  famous  well  at  the  farther 
end  of  it. 

This  is  one  of  the  chief  boulevards  used  by  the  foreign 
residents  in  the  hot  summer  evenings  for  driving,  and  also 
by  the  well-to-do  Chinamen,  who  have  not  been  against 
taking  advantage  of  some  of  the  luxuries  of  the  Westerners  ; 
for  among  the  stream  of  carriages  on  this  favourite  road  one 
can  see  in  a  well-built  and  equipped  open  carriage,  with 
mafoos  (coachmen)  uniformed  in  white  linen  and  with  a  red 
tassel  on  their  hats,  probably  three  or  four  solemn-looking 
Chinese  (they  often  more  than  fill  the  carriage) — or,  again, 
a  young  spark  in  his  high  dog-cart  driving  his  fast  pony,  his 
mafoo  standing  or  sitting  behind.  I  noticed  that  most  of 
the  Chinese  of  this  class  wore  Panama  hats — the  only 
article  of  apparel  in  any  way  approaching  our  own,  but 
usually  set  on  the  head  with  a  knowing  tip  to  the  side,  and 
part  of  the  brim  turned  down. 

The  Chinese  favour  very  fast  ponies ;  and  so  fast  do 
they  drive  that  the  action  being  forced,  becomes  more  what 
we  know  as  "  pacing  "  than  trotting.  Their  main  idea  is  to 
pass  anything  else  on  the  road. 

The  houses  round  here  are  well  built,  of  European  char- 
acter, and  often  of  striking  architecture,  varying  from  the 
more  ordinary  solid  red  brick  edifice  with  spacious  veran- 
dahs, to  the  black  and  white  old  English  style,  with  one  or 
two  of  even  greater  pretensions  and  almost  palatial  in  style. 
They  stand  in  considerable  grounds,  with  many  trees  and 


SHANGHAI  157 

are  altogether  delightful  residences,  from  which  (I  can 
testify)  is  dispensed  lavish  hospitality.  These  are  the 
homes  of  the  well-to-do  merchants  j  but  here  and  there 
we  find  that  a  wealthy  Chinese  has  stepped  in  and  pur- 
chased one,  and  lives  under  European  rule  and  pays  his 
rates  and  taxes  like  any  other  good  citizen. 

Good  services  of  electric  trams  connect  up  this  and  the 
other  suburbs  with  the  central  part.  The  foreigner  has 
pushed  even  across  the  big  yellow  Whangpoo  River  and 
built  many  factories,  engineering  and  other  works  on  the 
farther  bank;  and  from  the  Bund,  which  is  the  hub  of 
Shanghai,  constant  intercourse  with  this  quarter  is  kept  up 
by  numerous  steam-launches.  On  this  part  of  the  river 
are  anchored  many  ships,  large  and  small,  with  one  or  two 
gunboats  of  the  Western  powers  always  on  guard,  and 
with  a  few  small  Chinese  war-vessels  mostly  employed  in 
the  Customs  Service. 

There  is  almost  as  much  contrast  between  East  and 
West  on  the  river  as  on  land.  Off  the  native  city  lie 
scores  of  junks,  of  all  kinds,  some  from  Ningpo,  with  their 
very  high  sterns  where  the  families  on  board  live :  I  say 
families  advisedly,  because  in  many  cases  there  are  several 
generations  on  board ;  and  there  they  lie,  side  by  side,  the 
population  passing  from  one  to  the  other.  They  almost 
seem  like  an  extension  of  the  city  itself,  so  thick  are  they. 
And  oh  !  the  filth  and  dirt,  the  garbage  of  all  kinds  !  The 
measly-looking  cur  dogs  prowl  about  the  waterside  and 
among  the  boats,  picking  up  what  they  can. 


I58  CHINA 

The  Native  City  is  reached  by  passing  through  the 
French  Concession.  It  forms  as  complete  a  contrast  to  the 
European  Settlement  as  can  well  be  imagined.  On  ap- 
proaching the  boundary  between  the  two,  we  notice  that 
the  houses  diminish  in  size  and  importance,  and  are  much 
more  Chinese  in  style ;  but  at  the  dirty  little  creek  which 
forms  the  real  boundary-line  this  creek  sweeps  right  round 
the  original  Settlement  to  the  Soochow  Creek,  and  formed 
at  that  time  a  natural  means  of  defense  which  is  still  known 
as  Defense  Creek.  Along  this  creek  there  are  many  small 
shops  for  the  sale  of  all  sorts  of  hardware  and  many  a  good 
old  bronze  has  been  picked  up  here.  We  then  reach  the 
old  walls  of  the  Native  City.  Huddled  against  them  are 
dirty  native  houses,  booths  and  stalls,  and  on  crossing  the 
bridge  and  entering  the  gate  we  meet  with  perhaps  the 
greatest  contrast  in  all  China. 

Within  a  few  hundred  yards  of  these  modern  buildings, 
constructed  according  to  all  the  latest  ideas  of  civilization, 
we  are  at  once  carried  back  to  the  conditions  prevailing  in 
the  Middle  Ages  in  our  own  country. 

Plunging  into  a  low,  dark  and  evil-smelling  tunnel,  or 
passage,  through  the  wall,  we  see  the  old  gates  fitted  with 
immense  wooden  bars  for  closing  them  at  night.  Beggars 
are  everywhere,  cripples  with  grotesque  and  unusual  de- 
formities, and  other  sufferers.  The  air  is  filled  with  the 
loud  cries  of  the  small  huckster  announcing  the  nature  of 
his  wares. 

Quaint   little   shops   line   the   narrow   passages,   whose 


SHANGHAI  159 

greasy  pavement  exhales  the  rich,  close,  and  altogether  pe- 
culiar odour  so  familiar  to  all  old  residents  in  the  Celestial 
Empire.  A  few  more  narrow  streets  and  we  come  to  the 
New  Maloo,  so  called,  of  greater  width — and,  at  any  rate, 
a  potential  carriage  road,  if  indeed  a  carriage  could  reach 
it,  though  at  present  this  is  quite  out  of  the  question. 
Leaving  this  picturesque  street  with  its  quaint  signs,  busy 
shops  and  crowds  of  people,  one  dives  once  more  through 
intricate  passages  and  emerges  at  the  Bird  Market,  there  to 
be  deafened  by  the  ceaseless  songs  of  the  birds,  the  shouts 
of  the  salesmen  and  their  customers.  Near  at  hand,  sur- 
rounded by  water,  stands  the  Old  Tea  House,  famous  as 
the  original  from  which  the  inspiration  was  taken  for  the 
design  on  the  willow-pattern  plate.1  Here  are  bridges  of 

1  The  Legend  of  the  Willow  Pattern  is  as  follows  :  "  Koong-Shee  was 
the  daughter  of  a  wealthy  mandarin,  and  loved  Chang,  her  father's  secre- 
tary. The  mandarin,  who  wished  his  daughter  to  marry  a  wealthy  suitor, 
forbade  the  marriage,  and  shut  his  daughter  in  an  apartment  on  the  terrace 
of  the  house  which  is  seen  in  the  pattern  to  the  left  of  the  temple.  From 
her  prison  Koong-Shee  watched  « the  willow-tree  blossom,'  and  wrote  po- 
ems in  which  she  expressed  her  ardent  longings  to  be  free  ere  the  peach 
bloomed.  Chang  managed  to  communicate  with  her  by  means  of  a  writ- 
ing enclosed  in  a  small  cocoanut-shell,  which  was  attached  to  a  tiny  sail, 
and  Koong-Shee  replied  in  these  words  :  '  Do  not  wise  husbandmen  gather 
the  fruits  they  fear  will  be  stolen  ?  '  and  sent  them  in  a  boat  to  her  lover. 

"  Chang,  by  means  of  a  disguise,  entered  the  mandarin's  garden  and 
succeeded  in  carrying  off  Koong-Shee.  The  three  figures  on  the  bridge 
represent  Koong-Shee  with  a  distaff,  Chang  carrying  a  box  of  jewels,  and 
the  mandarin  following  with  a  whip. 

"  The  lovers  escaped  and  « lived  happily  ever  after  '  in  Chang's  house  on 
a  distant  island  until,  after  many  years,  the  outraged  wealthy  suitor  found 
them  out  and  burnt  their  house,  when,  from  the  ashes  of  the  bamboo 
grove,  their  two  spirits  rose,  phoenix-like,  in  the  form  of  two  doves." 


160  CHINA 

zigzag  pattern  leading  to  the  beautiful  old  building,  with  its 
many  gables  and  quaint  windows  of  oyster  shell,  built  on 
piles  and  tilted  considerably  out  of  the  perpendicular.  One 
can  see  it  all  on  the  old  blue  plates. 

These  bridges  are  lined  with  people  in  indolent  attitudes 
sunning  themselves,  many  of  them  having  birds  in  cages, 
or  tethered  to  sticks,  or  their  wrists.  How  the  Chinaman 
loves  a  bird  !  and  how  keen  is  the  competition  to  obtain 
good  songsters  which  fetch  high  prices  !  To  this  quaint 
and  beautiful  place  he  brings  his  pets,  and  stands  with  one, 
two,  or  even  three  cages,  holding  them  in  turn  out  over  the 
water  in  the  sunshine ;  listening  intently,  and  with  evident 
delight,  to  their  music.  The  "  yellow  eyebrow  "  thrush  is 
the  chief  favourite :  it  has  a  low  and  mellow  note  and 
fetches  $1.00  or  $1.50,  cage  and  all;  larks  are  also  some- 
times on  sale.  The  scene  inside  the  Old  Tea  House 
is  a  busy  one ;  crowds  drinking  tea,  smoking,  gossiping 
and  transacting  business.  It  seems  to  me  that  from  this 
little  spot  alone  one  could  form  a  tolerably  correct  concep- 
tion of  the  Chinese  character — lovers  of  peace  and  beauty, 
and  withal  industrious  and  keen  in  business.  Such  in  a 
nutshell  is  my  estimate  of  the  qualities  possessed  by  the 
Chinese,  qualities  indeed  of  which  any  nation  might  be 
proud,  and  without  which  any  people  must  soon  degenerate. 

With  its  great  roofs  turned  up  at  the  corners,  the  Piece- 
Goods  Temple  (so  called  because  it  is  largely  used  by  the 
Chinese  merchants  who  deal  in  Manchester  piece  goods), 
on  the  City  Wall  is  a  fine  specimen  of  the  architecture  of 


SHANGHAI  161 

Southern  China.  It  also  has  oyster-shell  windows  and 
woodwork  framing  of  most  quaint  design,  the  centre  of 
each  casement  having  a  small  square  of  glass,  thus  increas- 
ing the  dim  light  admitted  by  the  oyster-shells. 

I  have  heard  travellers  say  that  there  is  nothing  to  see  in 
the  Native  City  of  Shanghai.  All  I  can  say  is  that  such 
people  must  be  entirely  lacking  in  appreciation  of  things 
quaint  and  beautiful.  The  few  streets  and  buildings  in  the 
Native  City  which  I  have  mentioned  are  in  themselves 
worth  a  long  journey,  so  intensely  interesting  and  peculiarly 
characteristic  are  they. 

A  pleasant  drive,  and  one  often  taken  by  visitors,  is  by 
the  Bubbling  Well  Road  or  through  the  French  Settlement 
and  across  the  Sicawai  Creek,  past  the  Arsenal  to  Loong- 
wha,  where  there  is  a  fine  pagoda  and  large  temples.  The 
latter  show  in  a  remarkable  manner  what  I  would  call  the 
roof  architecture  of  Southern  China.  The  ridges  stand  up 
above  the  tiling,  and  are  most  profusely  decorated  with 
open-work  carving,  etc. ;  the  front  temple  in  this  case  show- 
ing in  the  centre  the  two  fish,  emblem  of  plenty,  and  on 
the  other  side  the  dragon,  and  at  the  end  swans.  The 
corners  are  most  gracefully  curved,  and  the  points  carried 
up  high  in  a  striking  and  quaint  manner,  giving  most 
beautiful  "  lines  "  to  the  whole  design.  Under  each  point 
hang  bells,  which  tinkle  sweetly  in  the  breeze.  In  this 
class  of  building,  and,  indeed,  in  most  buildings  in  China, 
the  roof  is  the  great  and  outstanding  feature. 


NINGPO 

ARTHUR  EVANS  MOULE 

"f    •    ^HE  City  of  the  Peaceful  Wave"  leads  us  by 

its  historical  documents  and  legends  far  back 

"^        into  the  earlier  ages  of  the  world  and  touches 

itself  or  by  its  environment  some  of  the  most  stirring  events 

of  China's  modern  history. 

Its  present  situation  is  almost  ideally  perfect  for  com- 
merce in  peace,  and  for  defence  in  war ;  if  only  we  could 
dispense  with  the  troublesome  and  merciless  instruments  of 
modern  warfare.  The  Chinese  have  a  saying  which  con- 
tains sober  sense  in  its  bombastic  language  : 

"  Traverse  and  search  the  whole  wide  earth,  and  after  all 
What  find  you  to  compare  with  Ningpo's  river-hall." 

The  city  lies  at  the  junction  of  the  two  branches  of  the 
river  Yung.  The  southwest  branch  rises  in  the  heart  of 
the  Funghwa  mountains,  and  in  the  direction  of  the 
"  Snowy  Valley  "  and  waters  a  large  part  of  Ningpo's  rich 
plain.  The  northwest  branch  rises  near  the  shores  of  the 
Ts'aungo  River,  and  bears  in  its  higher  waters  the  names 
of  China's  primitive  emperors  Yao  and  Shun  ;  and  passing 
the  busy  city  of  Yuyao  and  the  sleepy  city  of  Ts'zch'i 
brings  down  large  wealth  of  inland  commerce  and  carries 
on  its  bosom  great  numbers  of  travellers. 


NINGPO  163 

Both  branches  are  now  traversed  by  steam-launches,  the 
service  on  the  Yiiyao  River  being  regular  and  the  boats 
crowded  with  passengers.  The  two  branches  join  near  the 
east  gate  of  the  city,  and  flow  in  one  broad  and  winding 
stream,  twelve  miles  to  the  sea  at  Chinhai.  A  very  large 
trade  centres  at  Ningpo  and  radiates  from  it  northwards  to 
Shanghai  and  up  the  Yangtze  and  to  the  northern  ports, 
and  southwards  along  the  coast,  and  inland  to  Shaoning  and 
Hangchow  and  beyond.  Though  foreign  commerce  is  not 
nearly  what  it  was  forty  years  ago,  the  native  trade  is 
steadily  growing  and  developing,  and  the  sea-borne  busi- 
ness enjoys  far  greater  security  than  in  former  years,  now 
that  revenue  steam-cruisers  patrol  the  coast,  and  the  whole 
junk  traffic  is  under  the  supervision  of  the  Imperial  Mari- 
time Customs. 

The  city  forms  what  is  in  a  true  sense  an  epitome  of  four 
thousand  years,  linking  in  its  history  the  events  of  history 
and  the  characteristics  of  the  old  China  and  the  new. 

The  strategic  importance  of  Ningpo  is  demonstrated  by 
the  fact  that  the  great  Japanese  general  of  the  Sixteenth 
Century,  Hideyoshi,  the  conqueror  of  Korea,  who  was 
hindered  only  by  death  from  attempting  the  conquest  of 
China,  had  fixed  upon  Ningpo  as  one  point  of  special  ad- 
vantage in  his  proposed  campaign.  He  doubtless  realized 
that  Ningpo,  through  her  outpost,  the  Chusan  archipelago, 
would  control  China's  greatest  waterway,  the  Yangtze, 
which  stretches  three  thousand  miles  inland,  up  to  and  be- 
yond the  extreme  southwest  borders. 


164  CHINA 

Mount  to  the  top  of  the  pagoda  "  Heaven-invested," 
and  see  the  great  city  below  you  and  mark  the  threefold 
embrace  with  which  nature  and  art  have  combined  to  sur- 
round her,  and,  as  the  Ningpo  people  once  fondly  hoped, 
surely  to  protect  her.  See  the  magnificent  sweep  of  the 
amphitheatre  of  hills,  a  hundred  miles  and  more  in  circuit, 
with  peaks  rising  to  two  or  three  thousand  feet.  They 
bend  coastwards  from  Chinhai  to  the  south  of  the  eastern 
lakes,  and  then  twining  beyond  Funghwa  to  the  "Snowy 
Valley  "  hills  and  the  great  Sze-ming-san  ridge  of  moun- 
tains which  sweeps  to  the  "  Crouching  Dragon-hill "  and 
Hap'u.  Thence  to  Chinhai — a  distance  of  about  ten  miles 
— stretches  a  low  shore  with  shoal-water,  from  which  the 
sea  is  fast  receding;  and  this  forms  the  mouth  of  the 
amphitheatre  and  the  opening  of  the  horseshoe,  and  is 
itself  a  continuation  of  the  defence.  Then  watch  the 
gleam  of  water  all  round  the  five  miles  and  more  of  the 
wall,  the  two  branches  of  the  river  washing  the  southeast 
and  northeast  faces ;  and  the  broad  moat  on  the  north- 
west and  southwest,  with  only  a  narrow  neck  of  land  at 
the  north  gate,  less  than  a  hundred  yards  in  breadth — the 
only  break  in  that  circumambient  watery  defence. 

The  third  and  inner  line  of  all  is  the  wall  itself,  eighteen 
Chinese  It  (rather  under  six  miles)  in  circuit  with  an  average 
of  twenty-five  feet  in  height  and  a  width  of  twenty-two  feet 
at  the  base  and  fifteen  at  the  top.  The  wall  is  pierced  with 
six  gates,  with  a  barbican  to  each  ;  namely  the  North, 
South,  East  and  West  Gates,  and  the  Salt  and  Fairy-bridge 


NINGPO  165 

Gates.  The  last  named  gate  leads  to  the  old  bridge  of 
boats,  of  unknown  antiquity,  crossing  which  we  enter  one 
of  the  busiest  suburbs  of  the  city,  Kiangtung,  or  "  East  of 
the  River."  There  is  a  second  floating-bridge  of  recent 
date,  connecting  the  East  Gate  with  the  foreign  settlement. 

Now  this  city,  though  probably  at  least  twelve  hundred 
years  old,  is  not  old  Ningpo.  The  original  city  lay  at 
some  distance  from  the  present  site,  and  I  have  seen  the 
grass-covered  heavings  of  the  ancient  walls.  The  old  name 
was  Yangchow  or  Yungtung,  a  name  which  it  still  bears 
in  certain  documents.  It  was  a  comparatively  insignificant 
place  in  ancient  days.  In  the  time  of  the  great  Yii  (B.  c. 
2205)  it  was  under  the  jurisdiction  of  Kwekyi,  which  now 
forms  one  of  the  districts  of  the  Shaohingy#  (prefecture), 
and  is  in  its  turn,  by  the  revolution  of  the  destinies  of 
countries,  under  the  control  of  the  Intendant  of  Ningpo. 

The  province  of  Chekiang,  of  which  Ningpo  is  the 
commercial  capital  and  the  chief  seaport,  is  full  of  the 
voices  of  the  past.  Perhaps  this  is  not  to  be  wondered  at, 
as  Chekiang  formed  the  southern  limit  of  ancient  China. 
Shun,  the  Chinese  Cincinnatus,  called  from  the  plough  to 
the  throne,  tilled,  if  he  ever  really  did  so,  his  fields  with  an 
elephant  and  an  ox  near  the  site  of  the  present  city  of 
Yiiyao,  thirty  miles  above  Ningpo.  It  was  in  his  home 
there  that  he  maintained  so  calm  a  demeanour,  amidst  the 
quarrels  of  two  troublesome  wives,  as  to  attract  the  atten- 
tion of  the  Emperor  Yao,  who  called  him  thence  to  share 
with  him  the  Dragon  Throne.  The  young  empire  was 


166  CHINA 

already  like  a  household,  and  he  who  could  order  even  a 
disorderly  family  well,  and  produce  peace  where  there  was 
no  peace,  surely  must  be  the  heaven-sent  helper  to  secure 
and  maintain  order  in  the  household  of  China.  Fifty  years 
later,  the  great  Yu  subdued  the  floods  which  submerged 
China,  after  nine  years  of  such  incessant  care  that  he  is 
said  to  have  passed  and  repassed  his  home  again  and  again 
deaf  to  the  call  of  wife  and  children.  His  tomb  and  image 
are  to  be  seen  standing  to-day  near  the  city  of  Shaohing. 
The  dates  assigned  to  Yu  and  to  Noah  are  almost  the 
same. 

Ningpo  was  still  standing  on  its  ancient  site  when,  some 
eighteen  hundred  years  later  (about  B.  c.  210)  She  Hwang 
Ti  visited  the  place,  coming  down  from  Hangchow.  This 
emperor,  as  is  well  known  to  all  who  study  Chinese  history, 
destroyed  as  thoroughly  as  he  could  the  classical  literature 
of  China,  and  extirpated  her  scholars,  not  so  much  from 
ignorant  vandalism  as  from  an  ambitious  desire  to  recreate 
China,  and  make  its  history  commence  with  the  inaugura- 
tion of  his  own  reign  and  name. 

In  the  year  A.  D.  713  twelve  centuries  ago,  the  city  was 
transferred,  we  know  not  certainly  why,  to  its  present 
matchless  site.  It  was  named  Ming-chow  after  the  cele- 
brated range  called  the  "  Four  Illustrious  Hills."  These 
mountains  have  their  southern  base  in  far-off  T'aichow, 
their  western  branches  behind  Shaohing,  and  the  northern 
and  eastern  spurs  dip  into  the  sea.  The  title  "  Four  Illus- 
trious," which  is  still  used  of  Ningpo,  is  connected  with 


NINGPO  167 

the  legend  of  a  hill  in  the  range,  on  the  top  of  which  there 
is  a  natural  observatory,  with  apertures  in  the  rock  facing 
the  four  quarters  of  the  heavens,  for  celestial  and  terrestrial 
survey.  To  this  day,  influenced  partly,  perhaps,  by  a 
freak  of  local  pronunciation  and  partly  by  a  remembrance 
of  that  old  name,  some  people  call  the  city  Mingpo. 

When  the  Ming  dynasty  came  to  the  throne,  anxious 
fears  beset  the  minds  of  the  loyal  citizens  as  to  the  pro- 
priety of  continuing  to  use  the  name  Ming  (now  identi- 
fied with  the  illustrious  imperial  family)  as  the  name 
of  their  mean  city.  But  the  emperor  of  the  time  came  to 
the  rescue,  and  suggested  a  change.  "  There  is  a  city," 
he  said,  "  sixty  miles  to  the  eastward,  named  Tinghai 
("  Settle  the  sea  ").  When  the  sea  goes  down  the  waves 
are  at  peace ;  why  not  call  your  city  Ningpo  ("  Peaceful 
wave  ")  ? "  This  suggestion  was  accepted  with  much  fer- 
vour of  gratitude  and  Ningpo  remains  to  this  day  the  city's 
name. 

Meanwhile  Ningpo  had  sprung  up  and  grown  round  the 
"  Pagoda  of  Heavenly  Investiture."  This  pagoda  dates 
from  A.  D.  696,  or  seventy-six  years  earlier  than  the  build- 
ing of  the  city  itself.  The  following  seems  generally  to 
have  been  the  order  of  events  in  the  foundation  of  a  Chi- 
nese city.  First,  the  luck  of  the  place  was  ascertained,  and 
the  approach  of  evil  influences  repelled  by  the  pagoda,  or 
suppressed  by  its  weight.  Then  the  circuit  of  the  walls 
was  traced,  and,  finally,  the  houses  filled  in.  Stirring  events 
in  the  West  have  coincided  with  the  vicissitudes  of  the 


168  CHINA 

pagoda's  history.  It  was  built  A.  D.  696,  when  Oswy  was 
Bretwalda  in  Britain.  In  1107,  just  as  the  majestic  cathe- 
dral of  Durham  was  rising  on  its  wood-fringed  island-hill, 
the  pagoda  was  destroyed.  It  was  restored  in  1 145,  when 
the  yellow  plague  was  devastating  Europe.  In  1221,  dur- 
ing the  reign  of  one  of  the  Chinese  emperors,  who  strove 
to  suppress  Buddhism,  it  was  levelled  to  the  ground  and 
houses  were  built  on  the  site.  In  1285,  with  the  first 
Edward  on  the  English  throne,  the  pagoda  rose  from  its 
dust  and  ruins.  In  1327,  at  the  time  of  our  third  Edward, 
it  entirely  collapsed.  In  1330  and  again  in  1411,  it 
was  restored  and  repaired.  In  1413,106  year  of  Agin- 
court,  it  was  struck  by  lightning ;  and  in  the  stormier  days 
of  our  Elizabeth,  about  the  time  of  our  Armada,  it  was 
blown  over  by  a  hurricane.  In  the  year  of  the  Restoration 
it  was  rebuilt ;  and  it  stands  to-day,  stripped  of  its  outer 
galleries,  apparently  by  fire,  but  erect  and  picturesque  still, 
though  repaired  fifty  years  ago,  and  looking  as  though  a 
gentle  earthquake  shock  might  overthrow  it  for  final  ruin. 
When  seen  from  the  neighbouring  hills,  its  dark  pencil-like 
form  rising  from  the  smoke  and  haze  of  the  great  city,  is  a 
familiar  and  striking  object. 


HONG  KONG 

T.  HODGSON  LID  DELL 

HONG  KONG,  with  its  majestic  Peak  rising  in 
glory  above  a  shimmering  sea,  is  one  of  the  most 
beautiful  things  in  the  world.     Look  at  the  out- 
line of  the  hills,  broken   and  softened  here  and  there  by 
mist  floating  gossamer-like ;  then  look  at  the  town  of  Vic- 
toria nestling  at  its  foot,  and  the  shipping  of  many  nations 
from  frowning  battle-ship  and  stately  liner  to  the  matted- 
sailing  junk  and  tiny  sampan — a  wondrous  place ! 

Watch  the  Peak  towards  evening,  when  the  smoke  of 
the  fires  from  the  Chinese  quarter  rises  gently  up  the  hill- 
side. See  this  soft-coloured,  vaporous  smoke  of  chow- 
time,  with  its  mysterious  suggestions,  as  it  moves  slowly  in 
the  quiet  atmosphere.  Thoughts  come  to  you  then  not 
only  of  the  prosaic  cooking-time  of  China,  but  of  burning 
joss-sticks  and  quiet  worship  of  which  we  of  the  West  have 
but  vague  ideas. 

Climb  the  hill  on  a  brilliant  sunny  morning  and  look 
round  over  the  many  islands  of  red  and  grey  rock,  dotted 
about  on  the  gleaming  water,  with  sails  sparkling,  and  per- 
haps on  the  far  horizon  a  homeward-bound  liner  with  its 
freight  of  humanity,  goods  and  letters  with  their  messages  to 
the  loved  ones  at  home.  Or  look  down  at  night  over  the 


170  CHINA 

town  with  its  thousands  of  lights  glinting,  and  out  over  the 
harbour  to  busy  Kowloon,  at  your  feet  myriads  of  flitting 
fireflies,  and  a  brilliant  moon  and  stars  overhead.  This  is 
altogether  one  of  the  most  mysterious,  fascinating  and  beau- 
tiful sights  one  can  imagine. 

Who,  only  seeing  this  side  of  it,  would  guess  it  could  be 
the  scene  of  such  ravaging  storms  as  the  typhoon  of  1908 
or  previous  years,  when  houses  were  unroofed  and  wrecked, 
big  ships  driven  ashore,  junks  swept  away  never  to  be  seen 
again,  and  sampans  lost  by  the  score,  all  with  their  quota 
of  human  souls.  Such  is  Nature — ever  changing,  beauti- 
ful, mysterious,  with  terrible  and  gloomy,  glorious,  sunny 
and  joyous  side. 

Separated  from  the  mainland  by  a  channel  varying  in 
width  from  one  mile  at  Kowloon  Point  to  a  quarter  of  a 
mile  at  the  Lyeemoon  Pass,  the  island  of  Hong  Kong  or 
Hiang  Kiang,  on  which  is  built  the  town  of  the  same  name 
(more  correctly,  Victoria)  was  ceded  to  the  British  in  1841. 
The  island  is  very  irregular  in  shape,  about  ten  miles  long 
by  two  to  five  miles  wide,  and  rising  to  a  height  of  nearly 
2,000  feet.  The  geological  formation  is  mainly  granite, 
and  the  hills  in  the  upper  parts  are  bare  ;  but  lower  down, 
in  and  about  the  town  and  up  what  have  been  rough  gulleys, 
our  countrymen  have  planted  trees  and  made  beautiful 
gardens  and  lovely  walks  leading  up  to  their  pretty  houses 
nestling  in  sheltered  nooks  on  the  hillside.  High  up  one 
sees  them,  and  to  these  the  well-to-do  colonists  are  carried 
to  and  fro  in  chairs,  on  poles  borne  by  two  or  four  coolies. 


HONG  KONG  171 

There  are  very  beautiful  botanic  gardens  overlooking  the 
town  and  bay ;  and  when  I  paid  my  first  visit  to  them  they 
were  near  their  best,  and  I  was  greatly  struck  by  a  beauti- 
ful erythrea  tree  with  its  gorgeous  red  blossoms.  Alas  ! 
within  twelve  months,  when  I  went  again,  the  dreaded  ty- 
phoon had  broken  this  and  many  other  fine  specimens. 
And  another  example  of  the  terrible  destruction  caused  by 
these  dreaded  typhoons  was  brought  still  nearer  home  to 
me.  The  house  in  which  I  was  a  guest,  on  my  first  visit, 
had  the  roof  torn  off  and  was  almost  a  ruin ;  the  rooms  in 
which  I  had  spent  such  pleasant  times  with  my  genial  host 
were  laid  open  to  the  skies ;  and  many  months  afterwards 
the  house  was  only  beginning  to  wear  its  former  appear- 
ance ;  because,  whatever  damage  is  done,  the  colonist  in 
his  quiet  way  immediately  gives  orders  for  it  to  be  repaired 
and  goes  on  with  his  business  as  if  nothing  unusual  had 
happened. 

The  buildings  of  Victoria  are  very  fine.  I  need  only 
mention  a  few  examples — the  Hong  Kong  and  Shanghai 
Bank,  the  Hong  Kong  Club  and  the  New  Law  Courts  and 
Post-office,  all  on  the  front  and  largely  on  land  gained  from 
the  sea  by  the  foresight  and  energy  of  some  of  the  leading 
colonists.  Up  behind,  near  the  Botanic  Gardens  and  look- 
ing over  the  town,  is  Government  House,  watching,  as  it 
were,  over  the  destinies  of  the  colony  in  charge  of  its  oc- 
cupant. 

Scenes  in  the  street  are  interesting  and  very  cosmopoli- 
tan. Here  you  see  the  Britisher  intent  on  business  ;  there 


172  CHINA 

the  tourist  in  gay  attire,  men  and  women  just  landed  from 
a  liner,  and  making  the  most  of  a  little  stay  in  port  to  see 
all  they  can ;  there,  again,  the  shouting  chair-coolies, 
anxious  for  a  fare.  All  animation  and  business  is  this 
Gate  of  the  East. 

A  most  interesting  walk  is  that  along  the  front  facing 
the  harbour.  Starting  west  from  the  Hong  Kong  Club, 
hub  of  the  colony,  one  sees  the  Star  Ferry  "Wharf,  from 
whence  plies  the  steam-ferry  to  and  from  Kowloon.  Then 
there  are  various  wharves  and  landing-places  opposite  great 
modern  buildings,  the  offices  of  the  shipping  and  other 
merchants.  Between  these  wharves  and  jetties,  packed 
closely,  lie  many  native  boats  on  which  the  owners  live. 
They  are  ready  to  carry  cargo  of  any  kind,  to  ships  in  the 
harbour,  or  to  other  parts  of  the  colony  ;  there  are  smaller 
boats  or  sampans  for  passengers,  and  others  for  fishing. 
All  these  native  craft  must  push  off  to  a  certain  distance 
from  the  land  at  night,  and  all  are  numbered,  and  the  pas- 
senger-boats licensed,  so  that  passengers  may  embark  in 
safety,  the  police  knowing  each  boat.  Farther  on  one 
notices  that  the  houses  are  mostly  occupied  by  Chinese, 
and  along  and  across  this  busy  street  coolies  are  carrying 
to  and  fro  from  the  craft  all  sorts  of  goods,  from  bales  of 
cotton  to  pigs  squealing  and  kicking  tied  up  in  baskets ; 
farther  on  still,  are  the  wharves  of  the  various  companies 
running  steamers  to  Macao,  Canton  and  the  West  River. 

The  blue  gown  is  the  prevailing  colour  and  costume  of 
the  better-class  native,  but  amongst  the  coolies  all  colours 


HONG  KONG  173 

are  to  be  found  in  picturesque  confusion.  The  wide  straw 
hats  seem  to  serve  as  umbrellas  to  keep  off  either  sun  or 
rain.  Or  again  from  the  Post-office,  get  on  one  of  the 
smoothly-running  electric  cars  and  go  east  past  the  bar- 
racks, and  so  on  till  again  you  are  on  the  sea  front  (one 
sees  many  Japanese  names  on  the  shops  here),  on  past  East 
Point,  where  is  one  of  the  oldest  Hongs  of  the  colony,  built 
here  in  the  early  days  and  still  going  strong. 

Here  is  the  Harbour  of  Refuge,  constructed  to  provide 
shelter  for  the  many  native  craft.  On  farther,  we  see  to 
one  side  the  fine  racecourse,  where  at  certain  times  great 
crowds  gather,  not  only  from  Hong  Kong,  Canton,  but 
even  Shanghai  and  other  ports,  sending  their  racing  enthu- 
siasts to  swell  the  crowd.  Continue  on  the  car  and  we 
come  to  the  great  sugar-mills,  and,  near  by,  the  New  Dock, 
built  by  one  of  the  great  and  enterprising  firms  of  the  Far 
East.  And  what  an  enterprise  this  is  ! — cut  out  of  a  gran- 
ite hillside,  and,  at  the  time  I  saw  it,  nearing  completion 
with  all  the  latest  equipment  necessary  for  docking  large 
vessels — another  instance  of  British  colonial  energy. 

Farther  on,  the  car  runs  along  a  pretty  road  by  the 
waterside  and  finally  stops  at  the  entrance  to  the  village  of 
Sha-kai-wan,  which,  but  a  few  years  ago,  was  the  home  and 
headquarters  of  many  of  the  pirates  which  infested  these 
waters.  It  has  now  the  appearance  of  a  small  fishing-vil- 
lage ;  but  personally,  I  would  not  like  to  vouch  for  the 
strict  honesty  of  all  its  amphibious-looking  inhabitants.  At 
any  rate  it  does  not  call  for  great  imagination  to  fancy  them 


174  CHINA 

as  dressed  and  armed  in  old-time  style,  and  waiting  ready  to 
pounce  on  any  peaceful  craft  passing  by. 

One  cannot  fail  to  notice  another  engineering  feat — the 
Peak  tramway,  which  I  have  heard  described  as  ugly.  But 
if  one  will  travel  by  it  and  watch  from  the  car  as  it  ascends 
or  descends,  he  will  be  rewarded  by  most  beautiful  glimpses 
through  semi-tropical  foliage  along  the  hillside  or  over  the 
harbour.  From  a  station  half-way  up  I  saw  one  of  the 
most  delightful  views. 

New  Kowloon  might  well  be  described  as  the  military 
and  commercial — and  soon  will  be  the  railway — annex  of 
Hong  Kong.  This  is  one  end  of  the  Canton-Kowloon 
Railway,  now  in  course  of  construction  and  intended  to  be 
part  of  a  great  trunk  line  through  China.  At  Kowloon 
many  of  the  large  vessels  discharge  and  take  on  cargo. 
From  here  one  gets  perhaps  the  most  comprehensive  view 
of  the  Peak  of  Hong  Kong  and  the  town  of  Victoria,  with 
its  great  and  busy  harbour.  Two  or  three  miles  off,  to  the 
east,  is  the  old  native  city  of  Kowloon.  It  lies  on  the 
slope , of  the  hill,  and  the  walls  wind  up  and  along,  and  are 
well  seen  from  the  water.  The  town  has  now  few  inhab- 
itants. I  should  think  they  have  found  it  more  profitable  to 
migrate  to  the  New  Kowloon,  or  Hong  Kong,  and  trade  or 
work  there.  Old  Kowloon  is  nearly  opposite  Sha-kai-wan, 
and  its  people,  for  piratical  purposes,  as  far  as  situation 
goes,  may  have  been,  and  I  believe  were,  brethren  in  their 
nefarious  trade. 

I   believe   the    former   inhabitants   of  this    place    were 


HONG  KONG  175 

amongst  the  worst  characters  of  the  district,  and  such  a 
thorn  in  the  side  of  peace  and  quietness  that  a  few  years 
ago  it  ended  in  our  countrymen  at  Hong  Kong  rushing  the 
place,  turning  the  people  out  and  so  dismantling  it  that  it 
could  no  longer  be  a  menace  to  the  quiet  of  our  colony. 

Now,  as  I  walked  round  the  walls,  I  found  old  iron  can- 
non thrown  on  the  ground  and  many  signs  of  what  had 
been ;  but  looking  into  the  town  I  realized  that  its  power 
to  hurt  was  gone.  It  is  almost  deserted,  and  only  on  the 
outside  of  the  old  walls  and  nearer  the  water  is  there  a 
small  population  left.  It  is  difficult  to  realize  that  such  a 
pirate's  lair  could  exist  in  this  century  within  sight  of  one 
of  the  greatest  British  colonies  of  the  East.  Think  of  this 
hotbed  of  crime  only  across  the  narrow  waters  from  those 
palatial  buildings  and  comfortable  houses,  to  be  seen  from 
their  windows.  One  wonders  at  the  patience  which  al- 
lowed it  to  exist  so  long.  No  wonder  it  was  considered 
unsafe  to  cross  the  harbour  in  a  small  boat  after  dark  and 
that  there  were  mysterious  disappearances  while  these 
pirates  had  a  stronghold  near  by. 

I  cannot  finish  my  notes  on  Hong  Kong  without  refer- 
ring'to  the  wonderful  effects  of  what  are  commonly  known 
as  "  mackerel  "  skies,  which  are  here,  I  think,  seen  to  more 
perfection  than  elsewhere,  although  they  are  the  prevailing 
sky  of  Southern  China,  and  to  see  a  fine  sunset  from  Hong 
Kong  Harbour  is  something  to  remember  all  one's  life. 


CANTON 

T.  HODGSON  LID  DELL 

I  REACHED  Canton  in  the  early  part  of  a  beautiful 
morning,  and  at  dawn  I  found  we  were  passing  along 
the  quiet  waters  between  fertile  shores  with  distant 
hills  looming  up  in  tender  pearly  colour.  Well  may  this  be 
called  the  Pearl  River.  By-and-by  along  the  bank  we  could 
discern  the  rough  huts  of  the  fisher-folk,  built  up  out  of  the 
water  on  poles.  These  people,  doubtless,  were  pirates  not 
very  long  ago,  and  would  be  so  still  if  opportunity  allowed. 

Gradually  we  neared  Canton  and  began  to  see  more  and 
more  boats,  until  the  water  was  full  of  them  and  there 
seemed  hardly  room  for  us  to  get  through.  The  city 
covers  about  sixty-eight  square  miles,  a  great  part  of  this 
being  within  the  walls,  which  are  twenty  feet  thick  and  rise 
to  a  height  of  twenty-five  feet.  On  three  sides  this  wall  is 
still  further  protected  by  a  ditch  filled  with  water  by  the 
rising  tide,  but  at  low  tide  containing  nothing  but  revolting 
filth. 

There  are  twelve  outer  gates  and  two  water  gates,  the 
latter  allowing  boats  to  pass  from  east  to  west  across  the 
new  city.  All  gates  are  shut  about  sundown.  The  streets 
are  long,  winding  and  very  narrow,  the  houses  rarely  more 
than  two  storeys  in  height. 


CANTON  177 

The  Buddhist  priests  and  nuns,  about  2,000,  outnumber 
any  other  sect.  There  is  also  a  Mohammedan  mosque  with 
a  tall  tower. 

Pawnshops  in  China  are  most  extensive  and  remarkable 
institutions.  They  are  of  three  classes.  The  first  are 
owned  by  wealthy  companies,  and  their  places  of  business 
are  well  and  strongly  built,  and,  with  the  exception  of  the 
pagodas,  are  the  loftiest  buildings  in  Canton.  Tall  square 
blocks,  they  remind  one  of  some  of  our  old  border  keeps. 
They  have  windows  with  iron  shutters.  The  entrance 
doors  are  also  of  iron,  the  basement  forming  the  offices  for 
business,  while  the  upper  floors  are  for  storage. 

Pawnshops  of  the  second  class  are  also  run  by  joint  stock 
companies,  while  those  of  the  third  are  in  some  instances 
conducted  by  policemen  and  yamen-runners  and  even  by 
wealthy  convicts.  Interest  is  mostly  excessive,  with  per- 
haps a  reduction  in  winter  time  to  enable  the  poorer  people 
to  redeem  their  warm  clothing  in  cold  weather. 

The  boat-life  of  China,  and  of  Canton  in  particular,  is  a 
thing  by  itself;  nowhere  else  is  it  to  be  found  to  the  same 
extent ;  nowhere  else  can  be  seen  thousands  of  craft  massed 
together,  seething  as  it  were,  and  suddenly  bursting  into 
life  and  movement. 

What  a  marvellous  sight  it  was !  to  see  the  swarms  of 
people,  men,  women  and  children,  the  boats,  big  junks  with 
their  sterns  high  up,  or  tiny  little  sampans,  forming  the 
homes  in  which  they  are  born,  live  and  die — some  not 
even  leaving  them  to  be  buried  on  land,  but  finding  their 


iy8  CHINA 

last  resting-place  in  the  depths  below.  One  sees  this  mass 
of  boats  spreading  far  and  near  j  covered  in  with  all  sorts  of 
material,  from  the  well-fitted  hood,  part  of  which  slides 
along  and  makes  further  shelter,  to  the  makeshift  bits  of 
matting  pulled  over  some  bent  cane ;  they  all  seem  quiet — 
then  you  suddenly  see  an  oar  moved,  or  a  mast  and  sail 
raised,  and  a  movement  begins  as  that  boat  pushes  its  way 
out  of  the  crowd,  often  accompanied  by  much  loud  talk, 
before  it  gets  into  the  open  channel  and  goes  away  on  its 
journey.  All  native  boats  in  the  East  have  eyes  painted  on 
them,  the  Chinese  argument  being  — 

"  S'pose  no  got  eye,  no  can  see, 
S'pose  no  can  see,  no  can  walkee." 

Living  on  the  foreign  settlement,  the  Shameen  at  Canton — 
which  originally  was  little  else  than  a  mud-flat,  and  is  now 
a  beautifully  laid  out  garden-like  residential  town,  with  its 
turfed  roads  and  paved  walks,  tennis  grounds  overhung  and 
shaded  by  fine  banyan  trees — you  might,  but  for  looking 
out  on  the  river  with  its  boat-life,  think  you  were  in  Europe. 
But  cross  the  island  and  look  over  the  creek  at  the  other 
side,  at  the  native  city  and  you  realize  that  here  is  one  of 
the  many  densely  populated  cities  of  China.  You  note  the 
crowds  of  boats  again,  with  produce  of  all  kinds,  propelled 
by  men,  women  and  children ;  some  by  means  of  stern 
paddle-wheels,  which  are  acted  on  by  a  sort  of  treadmill 
which  the  coolies  walk  on ;  some  by  the  single  oar  j  and 
some  of  the  small  ones  even  by  the  foot,  the  coolie  sitting 


CANTON  179 

down  and  gripping  the  oar  with  his  toes,  as  we  would  with 
our  hands.  These  latter  boats  are  the  fastest,  and  have,  I 
believe,  been  much  used  for  letter  carrying. 

Cross  the  English  Bridge  and  you  are  in  Canton,  the 
most  Chinese  city  of  Southern  China ;  penetrate  into  those 
picturesque  streets,  overhung  by  wonderful  and  grotesque 
signs,  almost  covered  in  overhead  by  matting  and  lattice- 
work ;  narrow  and  dimly  lighted,  with  damp  and  slippery 
pavements  and  a  jostling,  hurrying,  noisy  crowd,  all  intent 
on  their  business,  but  nevertheless  with  time  to  cast  a 
glance,  sometimes  suspicious,  but  mostly  of  amusement,  at 
the  oddly  clothed  foreigner. 

But  be  careful  how  you  go,  for  (if  without  a  guide)  a  few 
minutes'  walk  is  so  confusing  you  will  be  completely  lost. 
Here,  without  doubt,  are  the  most  picturesque  streets  in  the 
world,  and  in  time  to  come,  when  the  people  have  grown 
less  suspicious  of  foreigners,  some  able  brush  will  show  this 
to  be  so ;  but  I  could  not  put  an  easel  up  in  the  streets,  and 
was  warned  not  to  collect  a  crowd,  as  there  was  consider- 
able feeling  against  the  British  at  that  time. 

With  difficulty  we  made  our  way  about  the  various 
streets,  seeing  the  temples  and  curios  and  visiting  the 
shops,  where  gorgeous  embroidered  vestments  were  for  sale, 
and  where  they  do  the  delicate  decoration  of  silver-work  by 
inlaying  with  the  blue  feather  of  the  kingfisher. 

How  quaint  it  all  is,  and  how  very  different  from  any- 
thing else  in  the  world  ! 

You  go  into  a  shop,  and  the  doors  or  gates  are  closed 


i8o  CHINA 

after  you,  and  you  wonder  what  will  happen  next.  All 
that  does  happen  is  that  nimble  boys  begin  to  show  you 
goods  you  long  to  possess.  Maybe  a  cup  of  tea  is  offered, 
green,  without  sugar  or  milk ;  and,  although  doubtful  of  the 
water,  one  takes  it. 

There  is  much  bargaining  and  haggling.  No  one  thinks 
of  giving  the  price  asked,  and  the  Chinese  appreciate  one 
who  knows  how  to  drive  what  seems  a  hard  bargain. 

Going  right  across  the  city — a  long  walk  on  foot  and 
mostly  done  in  chairs  carried  by  four  coolies,  who  shout 
and  call  to  clear  the  way,  and  when  met  by  another  chair 
push  in  against  a  shop  to  allow  passage — the  traveller 
reaches  the  city  wall,  and  by  following  it  comes  to  the  well- 
known  five-storied  pagoda,  near  which  is  the  best  and  most 
complete  view  of  Canton,  with  the  Flowery  Pagoda  rising 
out  of  it,  whilst  here  and  there  one  sees  those  square  tower- 
like  buildings,  the  pawnshops.  And  a  lovely  view  it  is  ! 
Looking  over  this  one  cannot  quite  think  of  the  overcrowd- 
ing, the  squalor,  the  dirt,  which  exists  below ;  here  we  look 
among  trees  over  the  roofs  of  temples,  with  God's  sky 
above  and  nothing  but  brilliant  sunlight  and  beauty  around. 

It  is  curious  that  the  Chinese  think  it  necessary  to  at- 
tempt to  repair  the  old  walls,  and  even  to  renew  the  roofs 
over  the  ancient  guns,  as  if  they  were  of  any  use — old  iron 
cannon  lying  rusting  on  the  ground — a  great  and  sufficient 
protection  against  an  enemy  in  olden  times,  but  of  no  use  now. 

On  looking  over  the  hilly  country  which  lies  outside 
this  part  of  the  city  wall,  I  saw  that  it  was  one  vast  cem- 


CANTON  181 

etery — hundreds,  thousands  of  small  stones  marking  the 
last  resting-place  of  past  generations  of  Cantonese.  Here 
and  there  I  could  discern  a  more  pretentious  monument, 
mostly  in  semicircular  form,  denoting  the  grave  of  a  dead 
notability.  A  remarkable  place  is  the  City  of  the  Dead.  It 
is  a  series  of  temples  and  mausoleums,  where  those  who 
can  afford  it  lay  their  dead  in  wondrous  coffins,  sometimes 
enamelled  and  decorated,  and  they  are  left  here  until  the 
soothsayer,  or  fortune-teller,  declares  when  and  where  they 
shall  be  finally  laid  to  rest.  I  am  inclined  to  think  that 
the  wealth  of  the  relative  must  be  the  chief  thing  which 
determines  the  length  of  time  the  coffin  shall  remain  in 
these  sacred  precincts. 

I  saw  a  funeral  procession  on  its  way  here  j  there  were 
various  articles  of  food  fastened  to  the  coffin.  A  live  cock 
was  one,  and  by  his  lusty  crowing,  did  not  seem  at  all  dis- 
turbed at  his  precarious  position. 

Another  interesting  place  is  the  Temple  of  Five  Hundred 
Genii.  At  the  gates  are  carved-stone  josses  guarding  the 
entrance,  which  is  of  considerable  extent.  In  the  central 
or  main  hall  five  hundred  saints  or  genii  are  placed  in  rows, 
and  in  front  of  each  is  placed  the  small  porcelain,  and 
sometimes  bronze,  urn  in  which  those  who  come  to  "  chin- 
chin  "  their  particular  joss  put  the  burning  joss-sticks. 
The  gods  themselves  are  wonderfully  varied  in  character, 
and  apparently,  from  the  number  of  joss-sticks  in  front  of 
certain  of  them,  some  are  greatly  favoured  beyond  others. 
They  are  all  lavishly  gilded,  some  quite  freshly  gilt,  others 


182  CHINA 

distinctly  showing  neglect — these,  I  suppose,  being  gods  to 
whom  there  is  no  necessity  for  appeal,  and  therefore  no 
call  for  devout  worshippers  to  show  their  devotion  by  gild- 
ing. One  in  particular  is  pointed  out  to  foreigners,  Marco 
Poloj  if  anything  like  this  image  he  was  no  beauty,  though 
a  great  traveller. 

Almost  in  the  centre  of  the  city  stands  the  old  British 
yamen,  once  the  house  of  a  great  Cantonese  mandarin. 
When  the  British  took  Canton,  they  annexed  this  beautiful 
place  as  the  residence  for  their  representative,  and  for  many 
years  it  was  occupied  by  our  Consul  and  his  staff.  But 
these  officials  now  live  in  modern  houses  built  on  the 
Shameen,  and  the  old  yamen  is  the  house  of  Consular 
students  sent  here  to  study  the  Chinese  language.  I  went 
with  a  friend  to  call  on  them  one  Sunday  and  was  greatly 
taken  with  the  quiet  beauty  of  the  place ;  the  grounds  are 
studded  with  fine  trees  and  paved  walks  and  terraces — it 
is  like  an  oasis  set  in  the  midst  of  dirty,  noisy  Canton. 

On  the  rivers  around  Canton  are  many  "  duckeries." 
An  old  junk,  with  wood  platforms  projecting  out  and  afloat 
on  the  water,  forms  the  house  of  the  duck-keeper  and  his 
family,  and  of  the  ducks,  which  are  bred  in  large  numbers  ; 
they  live  on  the  river  in  this  manner,  and  are  partly  fed 
there,  but  also  are  put  ashore  at  suitable  places  for  feeding, 
and  are  like  a  regiment  of  soldiers  under  command  of  an 
officer.  The  duck-keeper  directs  operations  with  a  long 
slender  pole.  I  have  eaten  Chinese  duck,  but  I  do  not 
wish  for  any  more. 


CH'ENG-TU 

R.  F.  JOHNSTON 

AT  Ichang,  through  the  kind  assistance  of  Mr.  H. 
H.  Fox,  British  Consul  at  that  port  and  by  the 
courtesy  of  the  local  Chinese  officials,  I  procured 
a  "  red-boat "  to  convey  myself  and  my  faithful  bull-terrier 
Jim  up  the  rapids  and  through  the  gorges  to  Wan-hsien. 
The  so-called  red-boats  are  Chinese  Government  life- 
boats. There  are  several  stationed  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  each  of  the  most  dangerous  rapids,  and  they  are  manned 
by  skilful  and  daring  watermen.  Every  year  a  large  per- 
centage of  the  trading-junks  are  wrecked  in  the  rapids  and 
the  annual  loss  of  life,  great  as  it  is,  would  be  appalling  if  it 
were  not  for  the  red-boats. 

No  description  of  the  scenery  of  the  gorges  can  do  jus- 
tice to  the  reality.  For  though  I  have  beheld  scenery  more 
beautiful  and  quite  as  grand,  I  never  saw  anything  in  my 
travels  that  filled  me  with  a  deeper  sense  of  awe.  Perhaps 
one  of  the  secrets  of  the  fascination  of  the  gorges  is  the 
ever-present  contrast  between  the  dumb  forces  of  nature 
and  evanescent  humanity.  For  ages  past  human  muscle 
has  matched  itself  in  a  brave  struggle  with  those  titanic 
forces.  The  very  rocks  themselves,  the  standing  symbol 
of  changelessness,  reveal  something  of  the  history  of  this 


184  CHINA 

unending  strife.  The  smooth  grooves  worn  deep  into  the 
jagged  summits  of  innumerable  crags  have  been  scooped 
out  by  the  ropes  hauled  by  a  hundred  generations  of  dead 
trackers,  and  just  above  the  water-line  the  deep  holes  in  the 
hard  limestone  made  by  the  poles  of  millions  of  toiling 
junkmen  in  past  centuries  are  still  used  as  hooks  and  points 
of  leverage  by  their  descendants  of  to-day.  When  it  is  re- 
membered that  more  than  a  hundred  trackers  are  sometimes 
required  to  haul  a  single  junk  against  the  current  of  the  greater 
rapids,  and  that  a  junk  may  take  half  a  day  in  covering  a 
distance  of  200  yards,  some  idea  will  be  formed  of  the  per- 
manent difficulties  that  confront  and  always  have  confronted, 
the  indomitable  Chinese  navigator  on  these  inland  waters. 

My  journey  from  Ichang  to  Wan-hsien  occupied  eleven 
days.  We  started  on  20  February,  reached  Pu-tai  K'ou 
(the  boundary  between  the  provinces  of  Hupei  and  Szech- 
wan)  on  the  6th,  passed  through  the  Feng  Hsiang  gorge — 
perhaps  the  grandest  of  all  the  defiles — on  the  8th,  and 
beached  ourselves  under  the  walls  of  the  city  of  Wan-hsien 
on  the  morning  of  the  I2th.  Here  I  paid  off  my  hardy 
boatmen,  and  prepared  for  my  overland  journey  to 
Ch'eng-tu. 

The  journey  from  Wan-hsien  to  Ch'eng-tu  consisted  of 
fourteen  long  stages,  the  total  distance  being  nearly  400 
miles.  The  road  lies  through  one  of  the  fairest  and  most 
fertile  portions  of  the  great  province  of  Szechwan,  and  is 
one  of  the  best  I  have  met  with  in  the  interior  of  China : 
a  circumstance  which  is  partly  due  to  the  fact  that  Chinese 


I 


SZECHWAN  HIGHWAY 


CH'fcNG-TU  185 

officials  generally  use  this  road  in  travelling  from  the  east 
of  China  to  the  provincial  capital.  The  inns  are  numerous 
and — from  the  Oriental  point  of  view — fairly  comfortable. 
The  innkeepers  so  far  from  showing  any  aversion  to  enter- 
taining foreigners,  tout  eagerly  for  their  custom,  and  gen- 
erally greet  one  with  the  amiable  remark,  "  At  your  Excel- 
lency's service,"  as  one  enters  their  courtyards.  The 
people  are  peaceful  and  industrious,  and  annoy  foreigners 
only  by  their  insatiable  curiosity.  Europeans  have  not  very 
often  travelled  by  this  road  as  they  generally  prefer — hav- 
ing a  good  deal  of  heavy  baggage — to  keep  to  the  Yangtze 
as  far  as  Chung-king,  and  thence  ascend  the  Min  River ; 
but  there  are  now  several  missionary  stations  between 
Wan-hsien  and  Ch'eng-tu,  and  the  country  is  quite  well 
known  to  foreigners.  The  road  lies  partly  over  undulating 
hills,  generally  cultivated  almost  to  their  summits  with  rice, 
rape,  wheat,  maize  and  many  other  crops,  and  partly  over 
rich  and  densely-populated  plains.  The  scenery  is  always 
picturesque  and  sometimes — among  the  hills — exceedingly 
beautiful.  The  villages,  farmhouses  and  temples  are  gen- 
erally situated  amid  little  forests  of  feathery  bamboo.  The 
hillsides  are  studded  with  charming  little  chalets,  and  very 
often  the  submerged  rice-fields  in  their  immediate  vicinity 
give  the  appearance  of  artificial  lakes  in  an  English  park,  es- 
pecially when  the  banks  or  balks  are  lined  with  graceful 
vegetation. 

The   Ch'eng-tu    plain,  with    its   marvellous   system  of 
irrigation  ana  its  three  or  four  crops  a  year,  is  the  richest 


i86  CHINA 

and  most  populous  district  in  the  whole  of  the  Chinese 
Empire.  This  extraordinarily  productive  plain  is  about 
ninety  miles  long  by  seventy  wide,  and  supports  a  popula- 
tion estimated  at  no  less  than  4,000,000,  of  whom  about 
350,000  reside  within  the  capital  itself.  It  is  studded  with 
many  prosperous  towns  and  villages,  and  is  cultivated  to 
its  utmost  extent.  Among  the  crops  are  rice,  wheat,  tea, 
tobacco,  maize,  the  opium-poppy,1  which  was  not  yet  in 
bloom,  and  the  yellow  rape  that  turned  hundreds  of  acres 
of  land  into  seas  of  bright  gold.  The  plain  is  connected 
by  a  navigable  waterway  (the  Min)  with  the  Yangtze,  and 
it  is  in  the  heart  of  the  richest  province  in  China.  The 
city  of  Ch'eng-tu  has  been  identified  with  Marco  Polo's 
Sindafu.  "This  city,"  wrote  Marco  in  the  Thirteenth 
Century,  "  was  in  former  times  a  rich  and  noble  one,  and 
the  kings  who  reigned  there  were  very  great  and  wealthy." 
Of  the  Min  River — which  had  not  then  been  subdivided  to 
the  same  extent  as  at  present  into  artificial  channels  for 
irrigation — he  says :  "  The  multitude  of  vessels  that  navi- 
gate this  river  is  so  vast  that  no  one  who  should  read  or 
hear  the  tale  would  believe  it.  The  quantities  of  merchan- 
dise also  which  merchants  carry  up  and  down  this  river  are 
past  all  belief." 

Ch'eng-tu  is  a  city  of  less  importance  now,  but  it  is  still 
one  of  the  greatest  and  most  prosperous  in  China.  Its 
population  is  much  smaller  than  that  of  Canton,  but  its 

1  Written  in  1908,  before  the  edict  to  exterminate  the  poppy  had  been 
issued.—^.  S. 


CH'£NG-TU  187 

general  appearance  is  more  attractive  as  well  as  far  more 
imposing.  Its  streets  are  broad  and  clean,  and  its  wall  ex- 
ceedingly well  preserved.  In  mediaeval  times  it  was  a 
frontier  city  of  great  political  and  strategic  importance,  for 
the  Tibetan  principalities  extended  then  as  far  east  as  the 
lofty  mountains  that  flank  the  Ch'eng-tu  plain  on  the  west. 
Even  now  large  numbers  of  Tibetan  traders  are  often  to  be 
seen  in  the  streets  of  Ch'eng-tu,  though  most  of  their  com- 
mercial transactions  are  carried  on  at  the  city  of  Kuan-hsien, 
about  thirty  miles  away,  a  place  which  is  also  remarkable 
for  the  sluices  which  regulate  the  waters  of  the  Min  and 
divert  them,  as  occasion  demands,  into  the  irrigation  canals. 
The  governor  general  of  Szechwan,  whose  yamen  is  in 
Ch'eng-tu,  is  more  like  a  real  viceroy  than  any  other 
provincial  ruler  in  China,  for  he  it  is  who,  on  behalf  of  the 
emperor,  holds  sway  over,  and  receives  the  embassies  of,  the 
various  Tibetan  princes  and  tribal  chiefs  of  the  extreme 
west. 

Though  so  remote  from  the  seaboard,  the  people  of 
Ch'eng-tu — or  perhaps  I  should  say  the  officials — are 
among  the  most  progressive  and  enlightened  in  China. 
This  is  especially  so  in  the  matter  of  education.  The  city 
possesses  a  Provincial  College,  where  about  three  hundred 
young  men  are  now  being  educated  in  Western  as  well  as 
in  Chinese  branches  of  learning. 

Something  of  the  grandeur  of  Ch'eng-tu  in  its  most 
palmy  days  may  be  realized  by  a  reference  to  extant 
Chinese  books,  as  well  as  from  the  eulogies  of  Marco  Polo. 


188  CHINA 

From  the  Shu  Hua  Shih  we  learn  that  under  the  T'ang 
dynasty  (618-905  of  the  Christian  era)  it  was  a  great  art 
centre,  and  a  long  list  of  paintings  and  frescoes  relating  to 
the  Buddhist  religion  are  mentioned  in  that  work  as  hang- 
ing on  the  walls  of  the  palaces  of  Ch'eng-tu.  Some  of  the 
temples  are  worthy  of  a  long  visit,  though  the  finest  in  the 
district  is  not  in  the  city  itself  but  in  the  neighbouring  town 
of  Kuan-hsien,  where  Li  Ping  and  his  son,  the  deified 
founders  of  the  great  irrigation  system  of  the  Ch'eng-tu 
plain,  have  had  raised  in  their  honour  a  temple  that  is  said 
to  be  the  most  beautiful  in  China.  But,  as  has  been  well 
remarked  of  Li  Ping  by  a  recent  English  traveller,  the 
perennially  fertile  fields  around  Ch'eng-tu  are  his  finest 
monument. 


MOUNT  OMEI 

R.  F.  JOHNSTON 

THE  forests  and  ravines  of  Mount  Omei  teem  with 
mystery  and  marvel,  for  there  are  legends  that 
carry  its  story  far  back  into  the  dim  days  when 
the  threads  of  history  meet  together  in  the  knots  of  myth. 
There  is  hardly  a  peak  ungarlanded  with  the  flowers  of 
romance,  hardly  a  moss-grown  boulder  that  is  not  the 
centre  of  an  old-world  legend.  The  many  stories  of 
wonderful  visions  and  wizard  sounds  that  have  come  to  the 
shrines  of  Omei  may  raise  a  smile  of  amusement  at  human 
credulity  yet  they  are  easily  enough  explained  when  we 
remember  how  strangely  both  sights  and  sounds  may  be 
affected  by  mountain  mists ;  and  it  is  seldom  that  the  giant 
bulk  of  Omei  is  bathed  from  peak  to  base  in  clear  sun- 
shine. 

"  The  swimming  vapour  slopes  athwart  the  glen, 
Puts  forth  an  arm,  and  creeps  from  pine  to  pine, 
And  loiters,  slowly  drawn." 

It  is,  indeed,  true  that  "  many-fountain'd  "  Omei  would 
lose  a  great  part  of  its  spell  if  the  mists  were  to  melt  away 
into  garish  daylight.  No  more  could  the  pilgrim  pour  into 
the  ears  of  wondering  listeners  tales  of  how,  when  ascend- 
ing the  mountain  amid  gloom  and  silence,  he  had  suddenly 


i9o  CHINA 

heard  his  own  praises  of  the  Lord  Amitabha  rechanted  by 
spirit  voices  j  how  a  rift  in  the  curtain  of  white  cloud  had 
suddenly  disclosed  landscapes  of  unearthly  loveliness,  with 
jewelled  palaces  and  starry  pinnacles  such  as  were  never 
raised  by  the  hands  of  men  j  how  he  had  caught  glimpses 
of  airy  forms  that  passed  him  with  a  sigh  or  a  whisper,  but 
left  no  traces  in  the  forest  or  the  snow  and  made  no  sound 
of  footfall ;  or  how  when  approaching  unwittingly  the  edge 
of  some  terrible  abyss  he  had  felt  the  touch  of  a  ghostly 
finger  that  led  him  back  to  safety. 

It  is  believed  that  the  Lolos  who  are  not  Buddhists  wor- 
shipped on  Mount  Omei  a  triad  of  deities  of  their  own,  and 
it  is  at  least  certain  that  men  of  that  race  are  sometimes 
met  on  Omei's  slopes.  But  the  earliest  legendary  associa- 
tions of  the  mountain  are  in  Chinese  minds  naturally  con- 
nected with  those  mythical  progenitors  of  the  Chinese 
people — Fu  Hsi  and  Nii  Wo.  This  carries  us  back  to  the 
Twenty-ninth  Century  B.  c.  Both  these  mysterious  persons 
have  their  "  caves  "  on  Mount  Omei,  but  they  are  in  such 
inaccessible  situations  that  no  mortal  eye  has  ever  seen 
them. 

Omei-shan — like  other  sacred  mountains  in  China — has 
always  been  famous  for  the  medicinal  value  of  its  roots  and 
herbs,  and  the  monks  still  derive  no  little  benefit  from  their 
sale.  Perhaps  it  was  among  these  herbs  that  The  Old  Man 
found  his  elixir  of  life,  and  if  so  he  did  not  remain  in  ex- 
clusive possession  of  the  secret.  The  records  of  Omei  are 
full  of  accounts  of  recluses  and  others  whose  span  of  life  ex- 


-     • 


SUMMIT  OF  MOUXT  OMEI 


MOUNT  OMEI  191 

tended  far  beyond  the  normal.  One  of  them  is  known  to 
legend  as  Pao  Chang,  but  more  popularly  as  Ch'ien  Sui  Ho 
Shang,  or  "The  Monk  of  a  Thousand  Years."  The 
period  of  his  long  and  useful  life  is  given  in  the  records. 
He  was  born  in  the  twelfth  year  of  Wei  Lieh  Wang  of  the 
Chou  dynasty  and  died  in  the  eighth  year  of  Kao  Tsung  of 
the  Tang  dynasty  at  the  ripe  old  age  of  precisely  one  thou- 
sand and  seventy-one.  He  was  a  native  of  India,  but  came 
to  China  in  the  Chin  dynasty  (265-419  of  our  era)  and 
went  to  worship  at  the  shrine  of  P'u  Hsien  Bodhisattva  on 
Mount  Omei,  where  he  spent  the  declining  centuries  of  his 
life.  According  to  another  account  his  arrival  at  Omei  was 
a  good  deal  earlier  than  the  Chin  period,  for  his  name  is 
connected  with  the  most  famous  of  all  the  Omei  stories — 
one  which  refers  to  the  reign  of  Ming  Ti  of  the  Han 
dynasty. 

This  story  relates  to  the  foundation  of  what  may  be 
called  the  Buddhistic  history  of  Omei  and  the  beginning  of 
its  long  historical  association  with  its  patron  saint,  P'u 
Hsien  Bodhisattva.  We  are  told  that  in  the  reign  of  Ming 
Ti  (58-75  of  the  Christian  era)  a  certain  official  named  P'u 
happened  to  be  on  Mount  Omei  looking  for  medicinal 
herbs.  In  a  misty  hollow  he  suddenly  came  upon  the  foot- 
prints of  a  deer.  They  were  shaped  not  like  the  footprints 
of  an  ordinary  deer,  but  like  the  flower  of  the  lotus. 
Amazed  at  the  strange  sight,  he  followed  the  tracks  up  the 
mountain.  They  led  him  continually  upward  until  at  last 
he  found  himself  on  the  summit,  and  there,  at  the  edge  of 


192  CHINA 

a  terrible  precipice,  they  disappeared.  As  he  gazed  over 
the  brink,  he  beheld  a  sight  most  strange  and  wonderful. 
A  succession  of  marvellous  colours,  luminous  and  brilliant, 
gradually  rose  to  the  surface  of  the  vast  bank  of  clouds  that 
lay  stretched  out  below,  and  linked  themselves  together  in 
the  form  of  a  glorious  iridescent  aureole.  P4u,  full  of  won- 
der at  so  extraordinary  a  spectacle,  sought  the  hermitage  of 
the  famous  "  Monk  of  a  Thousand  Years  "  and  told  him 
his  strange  story.  "  You  are  indeed  happy  ! "  said  the 
Monk.  "What  you  have  seen  is  no  other  than  a  special 
manifestation  to  you  of  the  glory  of  the  great  Bodhisattva 
Plu  Hsien :  fitting  it  is,  therefore,  that  this  mountain  should 
be  the  centre  from  which  his  teachings  may  be  spread 
abroad.  The  Bodhisattva  has  certainly  favoured  you  above 
all  men."  The  end  of  the  whole  matter  was  that  P'u  built, 
on  the  spot  from  which  he  had  witnessed  the  sublime  mani- 
festation, the  first  of  the  Buddhist  temples  of  Mount  Omei, 
and  dedicated  it  to  P'u  Hsien  Bodhisattva  j  and  the  present 
monastic  buildings  known  as  the  Hsien  Tsu  Tien  and  its 
more  modern  neighbour  the  Chin  Tien  occupy  in  the 
Twentieth  Century  the  site  chosen  for  the  original  P4u 
Kuang  Tien,  or  Hall  of  Universal  Glory,  in  the  First 
Century. 

This  story  is  interesting  as  carrying  back  the  Buddhistic 
traditions  of  Omei  to  the  very  earliest  days  of  Buddhism  in 
China.  My  readers  will  probably  remember  that  it  was  in 
the  same  epoch — the  reign  of  Ming  Ti — that  the  emperor 
had  his  famous  vision  of  the  Golden  Man,  which  is  sup- 


MOUNT  OMEI  193 

posed  to  have  led  to  the  introduction n  of  Buddhism  into 
China  under  direct  imperial  patronage.  The  story  is  also 
of  interest  as  embodying  the  first  record  of  the  remarkable 
phenomenon  known  as  the  Glory  of  Buddha  which  has 
always  been  one  of  the  principal  attractions  of  the  moun- 
tain and  may  well  have  been  the  real  cause — as  the  story 
itself  indicates — of  its  special  sanctity. 

The  other  curiosities  of  Omei  are  so  numerous  that  most 
of  them  cannot  even  be  referred  to.  Near  the  foot  of  the 
mountain  is  a  scooped-out  rock  which  is  said  to  have  once 
formed  a  bath  in  which  pilgrims  were  required  to  go  through 
a  course  of  purification  before  ascending  the  mountain. 
This,  if  true,  is  curious  and  suggestive.  There  is  a  spot 
shown  where  a  miraculous  lotus-plant — the  lotus  is  sacred 
to  the  Buddha — used  to  blossom  in  every  season  of  the  year. 
There  is  a  flying-bell,  the  tolling  of  which  has  been  heard 
in  many  different  parts  of  the  mountain,  though  it  is  never 
moved  by  human  hands.  There  are  rock-inscriptions 
written  by  emperors  and  empresses  and  by  the  great  Sung 
dynasty  poet,  Su  Tung-p'o.  Not  far  from  the  Wan-nien 
monastery — perhaps  the  second  oldest  on  the  mountain — is 
a  stream  called  the  Black  Water. 

The  earliest  religious  buildings  on  Mount  Omei  were  no 
doubt  solitary  hermitages,  erected  by  recluses  whose  relig- 
ious enthusiasm  impelled  them  to  find  in  the  deep  recesses 
of  its  forests  and  gorges  a  welcome  retreat  from  the  noise 
and  vanity  of  a  world  that  they  despised.  As  time  went  on, 
richly  endowed  monasteries — nobler  and  more  splendid  than 


194  CHINA 

any  now  existing — rose  in  its  silent  ravines  and  by  the  side 
of  its  sparkling  watercourses,  and  opened  their  doors  to 
welcome  those  whom  spiritual  ecstasy  or  longing  for  a  life 
of  philosophic  contemplation,  or  perhaps  the  anguish  of  de- 
feated ambition,  drove  from  the  haunts  of  men.  But  grad- 
ually as  religious  fervour  died  away,  the  mountain  recluses 
and  solitary  students  of  early  days  were  succeeded  by 
smaller  men,  distinguished  neither  for  piety  nor  for  scholar- 
ship. It  must,  indeed,  be  confessed  that  no  tradition  of 
sound  learning  has  been  kept  up  in  the  Buddhist  Church  in 
China.  To  some  extent  the  lack  of  scholarship  among 
Chinese  Buddhists  may  perhaps  be  traced  not  too  fancifully 
to  the  practice  and  teaching  of  Bodhidarma,  the  so-called 
twenty-eighth  patriarch  of  the  Indian  Buddhists,  and  the 
first  of  the  patriarchs  of  China. 

"  Buddha's  Glory  "  is  not  the  only  marvel  that  the  for- 
tunate pilgrim  may  hope  to  behold  when  he  reaches  the 
Golden  Summit.  Night  on  Mount  Omei  has  its  treasures 
hardly  less  glorious  than  those  of  day.  These  take  the 
forms  of  myriads  of  little  lights,  moving  and  glimmering 
like  winged  stars  in  the  midst  of  an  inverted  firmament. 
They  are  known  as  the  Sheng  Teng  (Holy  Lamps)  and 
have  been  described  to  me — for  alas  !  I  saw  them  not — as 
brilliant  specks  of  light  darting  hither  and  thither  on  the 
surface  of  the  ocean  of  mist  on  which  in  daytime  floats  the 
coloured  aureole.  A  fanciful  monk  suggested  to  me  that 
they  are  the  scintillating  fragments  of  the  "  Glory  of 
Buddha,"  which  is  shattered  at  the  approach  of  night  and 


MOUNT  OMEI  195 

reformed  at  the  rising  of  the  sun.  Foreigners  have  sup- 
posed that  they  are  caused  by  some  electrical  disturbance ; 
but  the  monk's  explanation,  if  the  less  scientific  of  the  two, 
is  certainly  the  more  picturesque. 

The  monastery  in  which  I  was  entertained  is  probably 
the  largest  on  the  summit,  but  by  far  the  most  famous  is  its 
neighbour,  the  Hsien  Tsu  Tien,  which  is  believed  to  oc- 
cupy the  site  of  the  original  temple  to  P'u  Hsien  that  ac- 
cording to  the  legend  was  built  by  P'u  Kung  in  the  Han 
dynasty  after  he  had  tracked  the  lily-footed  deer  to  the 
edge  of  the  great  precipice  and  had  beheld  the  wonderful 
sight  thenceforth  known  as  the  "  Glory  of  Buddha."  The 
temple  contains  a  large  sedent  image  of  the  patron  saint 
and  behind  it  is  a  terrace  from  which  may  be  seen  the 
manifold  wonders  of  the  abyss.  Not  far  from  this  building 
is  the  Monastery  of  the  Sleeping  Clouds  and  further  off  are 
the  temples  of  the  Thousand  Buddhas  (Chlien  Fo)  and  the 
White  Dragon. 

I  regretfully  left  the  summit  of  Mount  Omei  on  my 
downward  journey  early  on  the  morning  of  loth  March, 
and,  after  many  a  slip  and  sprawl  on  the  snow,  reached  the 
Wan-nien  monastery  in  the  afternoon.  Here  I  spent  a 
night  for  the  second  time,  and  continued  the  descent  on  the 
following  morning.  Just  below  the  temple  of  the  Pai 
Lung  (White  Dragon)  which  I  had  already  visited,  the  road 
bifurcates ;  and  as  both  branches  lead  eventually  to  Omei- 
hsien,  I  naturally  chose  the  one  that  was  new  to  me.  By 
this  time  I  had  left  far  behind  me  the  snow  and  icicles  of  the 


196  CHINA 

higher  levels  and  had  entered  a  region  of  warm  air  and 
bright  green  vegetation.  The  change  was  startling  as 
though  by  some  magic  power  the  seasons  had  been  inter- 
changed. 

"  I  dreamed  that  as  I  wandered  by  the  way 

Bare  winter  suddenly  was  changed  to  spring, 
And  gentle  odours  led  my  steps  astray, 

Mixed  with  a  sound  of  waters  murmuring." 

Shelley's  dream  would  have  been  realized  on  the  slopes  of 
Mount  Omei. 


THE  LANGUAGE 

CHESTER  HOLCOMBE 

IT  is  impossible  to  know  any  people  well  until  the  stu- 
dent can  speak  and  think  in  their  tongue.  And  a  bar- 
rier far  more  serious  than  the  Great  Wall  to  any  inti- 
mate acquaintance  with  the  Chinese  is  found  in  their 
language.  It  is  the  oldest  spoken  language  now  existent 
upon  the  earth,  has  been  the  mother  tongue  of  a  far  larger 
number  of  human  beings  than  any  other  either  in  the  past 
or  present,  and,  so  far  as  can  be  determined,  has  undergone 
no  serious  changes  either  in  its  construction  or  written 
form  since  it  came  into  existence.  It  has  had,  in  common 
with  all  other  languages,  a  constant  process  of  growth  and 
decay ;  new  ideas  have  required  new  symbols  of  expression. 
Characters  have  dropped  out  of  common  use  as  the  ideas 
which  they  represented  were  lost  or  modified.  But  the 
national  habit  of  thrift  and  economy  appears  to  have  shown 
itself  even  in  their  word-building.  While  new  characters 
have  been  added  to  the  language,  none  of  the  old  ones  have 
been  absolutely  dropped.  The  result  is  an  enormous  list  of 
words,  which  literally  "  no  man  can  number."  The  esti- 
mate of  the  total  number  of  distinct  characters  in  the 
Chinese  language  ranges  all  the  way  from  25,000  to  260,- 
ooo.  The  Kang  Hsi  Tz  Tien — the  standard  dictionary  of 


i98  CHINA 

China — contains  44,449.  Probably  not  more  than  10,000 
of  these  are  in  constant  use  even  among  the  educated 
classes.  The  nine  volumes  of  the  Chinese  classics  contain 
only  4,601  different  characters,  though  in  five  of  the  nine 
volumes  are  found  a  total  of  over  two  hundred  thousand 
words.  Hence  the  list  of  what  we  would  call  obsolete  char- 
acters must  be  far  more  extensive  than  that  of  the  active 
living  characters  of  the  language.  But  pedantry,  as  shown 
in  searching  for  and  making  use  of  some  long-forgotten 
character,  is  a  virtue  among  the  Chinese,  and  one  of  the 
favourite  modes  of  exhibiting  great  scholarship  is  by  inter- 
larding a  memorial  to  the  throne,  or  an  essay,  with  a  host 
of  characters  resurrected  from  the  most  ancient  debris  of  the 
language.  While  this  enormously  increases  the  labour 
of  learning  Chinese — makes  it,  indeed,  an  endless  task 
— it  carries  with  it  one  comfort.  It  is  no  discredit 
to  any  person,  however  learned,  to  be  ignorant  of  the 
form,  sound,  or  meaning  of  characters  met  in  his  daily 
reading. 

The  Chinese  language  has  no  alphabet.  Each  character 
represents  in  itself  a  complete  idea,  and  hence  it  is  spoken 
of  as  a  monosyllabic  language.  But,  practically  speaking, 
each  character  corresponds  more  nearly  to  our  syllable.  As 
ordinarily  used,  it  is  no  more  nearly  monosyllabic  than  is 
English.  It  is  written  in  columns  from  top  to  bottom  of 
the  page,  and  from  right  to  left.  A  Chinese  book  ends 
where  ours  begins.  Writing  is  done  with  a  fine  camel's- 
hair  brush  and  India  ink.  The  process  of  printing  in 


THE  LANGUAGE  199 

China,  known  centuries  before  the  discovery  of  the  art  in 
Europe,  is  very  simple. 

Each  character  must  be  learned  by  itself,  and  when  the 
student  has  mastered  a  thousand  or  five  thousand,  the  suc- 
ceeding thousands  must  be  learned  in  the  same  way. 
Those  already  familiar  furnish  no  other  assistance  than  a 
certain  quickness  to  perceive  the  peculiar  form  which 
serves  to  distinguish  each  from  its  fellows.  But  there  is 
a  peculiar  fascination  in  the  study  of  these  same  char- 
acters when  once  they  are  known. 

In  their  original  forms  the  characters  were  rude  outlines 
of  the  objects  they  were  intended  to  represent.  The  first 
change  to  which  they  were  subjected  was  the  omission  of 
unimportant  lines,  leaving  only  such  parts  of  the  picture  as 
represented  the  peculiar  form  or  essential  points  of  the  ob- 
ject. Thus  a  man  was  represented  with  an  upright  line 
for  the  body  and  two  spreading  lines  for  legs;  a  sheep,  by 
lines  so  drawn  as  to  represent  the  horns,  head,  feet,  and 
tail ;  cattle,  by  a  head,  two  horns,  and  a  tail ;  the  sun,  by 
a  circle  with  a  dot  in  the  centre  ;  and  a  tree,  by  lines  repre- 
senting the  trunk,  roots,  and  branches.  In  this  way  a 
limited  number  of  forms,  to  indicate  single  visible  objects, 
were  secured. 

Next  came  the  combination  of  these  simple  outlines  to 
represent  ideas  rather  than  objects.  And  the  study  of  this 
process  of  word-building  is  especially  fascinating,  since  a 
large  proportion  of  the  compounded  characters  are,  of 
necessity,  ideographic.  Dissect  one  of  them  and  there  lies 


200  CHINA 

before  you,  in  its  component  parts,  the  Chinese  conception 
of  the  elements  which  combine  to  form  the  idea  which  the 
character  represents.  Those  ancient  Chinese  word-builders 
crystallized  into  these  combinations  their  own  conceptions, 
often  crude,  inadequate,  and  even  grotesque,  of  the  ideas 
which  they  sought  to  express.  Here  are  a  few  of  these 
combinations  by  way  of  illustration :  Two  trees  represent 
a  forest,  three  a  thicket.  The  sun  beside  the  moon  repre- 
sents brightness.  A  prisoner  is  literally  a  man  in  a  box. 
A  mouth  in  a  door  signifies  to  ask ;  a  mouth  and  a  dog,  to 
bark ;  and  a  woman  watching  at  a  window,  jealousy.  A 
pig  under  a  roof  indicates  the  Chinese  idea  of  home,  and  a 
woman  beside  a  pig  under  a  roof,  the  marriage  of  a  woman  ; 
while  the  character  "  to  seize  "  placed  over  a  woman  shows 
the  Celestial  idea  of  the  part  played  by  a  man  irj  a  matri- 
monial alliance.  And  when  a  Chinaman  made  a  woman 
placed  beside  a  broom  represent  a  wife,  he  painted  thereby 
his  own  conception  of  her  principal  office  in  the  family. 
On  the  other  hand,  he  gave  an  illustration  of  his  love  for 
male  offspring  when  he  made  a  woman  standing  beside  a 
son  signify  good.  He  indicates  his  modest  conception  of 
wealth,  since  his  combination  consists  of  one  mouth  under 
a  roof  and  over  a  field.  Other  and  perhaps  more  natural 
compounds,  from  our  standpoint,  are  "  white  "  and  "  heart," 
to  signify  fear;  a  hand  beside  a  man  meaning  to  help,  and 
a  man  standing  by  words  as  a  symbol  of  faith.  Few  would 
fail  to  recognize  the  aptness  of  thought  under  a  tiger  as  a 
symbol  for  worry  or  care,  or  heart  beside  a  pig-sty  as  signi- 


THE  LANGUAGE  201 

fying  mortification  or  disgrace.  But  we  have  a  sorry  pic- 
ture of  Chinese  ideas  of  womankind  in  their  representation 
of  peace  or  rest  by  one  woman  under  a  roof,  while  two 
women  mean  "  to  quarrel,"  and  three  together  signify  in- 
trigue of  the  most  disgraceful  kind.  Generally  speaking, 
the  frequent  use  of  the  character  meaning  woman  in  com- 
binations in  which  the  idea  to  be  expressed  is  wrong  in 
its  nature  more  than  adequately  illustrates  the  ancient 
Chinese  idea  that  the  female  sex  is  "  moulded  out  of 
faults." 

In  the  construction  of  phrases  and  idiomatic  expressions 
a  similar  peculiarity  exists.  Their  idioms  are  by  turns 
simple,  quaint,  grotesque,  full  of  force,  and  utterly  devoid 
of  any  apparent  connection  with  the  idea  they  represent. 
By  way  of  example,  they  show  a  peculiarly  low  national 
idea  of  the  colour  white  by  its  general  use  to  signify  use- 
lessness  or  failure.  A  "  white  man  "  means  a  useless  good- 
for-nothing,  while  a  "  red  man  "  is  a  popular,  successful 
person.  A  "white  house"  is  a  hovel;  "white  talk" 
means  unsuccessful  argument,  and  "  white  running  "  means 
labour  spent  in  vain.  As  the  language  in  common  use  is 
practically  a  hopeless  entanglement  of  these  phrases  and 
idioms,  from  most  of  which  time  has  stripped  all  their 
original  force  and  connection,  it  will  readily  be  seen  that 
the  task  of  becoming  familiar  with  an  innumerable  list  of 
characters  is,  after  all,  less  difficult  than  that  of  building 
them  into  sentences  which,  from  a  Chinese  standpoint, 
shall  be  intelligible  and  correct.  More  foreigners  fail  to 


202  CHINA 

speak  idiomatic  Chinese  than  to  acquire  a  reasonable  knowl- 
edge of  the  written  characters.  And  the  failure  is  far  more 
serious. 

Fortunately  the  grammar  of  the  language  gives  no  trouble. 
It  is  so  simple  as  to  be  almost  non-existent.  The  words 
appear  to  have  been  worn  smooth  and  round  by  long  use, 
and  may  be  used  for  the  different  parts  of  speech  almost 
at  will.  The  same  word  serves  indifferently  as  a  noun, 
verb,  adverb,  or  adjective,  or  for  any  other  subordinate  pur- 
pose as  may  please  the  speaker.  Moods,  tenses,  persons, 
gender,  and  number  are  all  lacking.  Conjugations,  de- 
clensions, and  the  whole  tribe  of  auxiliary  verbs  are 
conspicuous  only  by  their  absence.  A  single  character 
furnishes  the  root-idea.  All  qualifications  of  it  must  be 
effected  by  the  addition  of  other  characters.  The  few 
educated  Chinese  who  have  made  any  attempt  to  master 
the  English  tongue  look  with  horror  and  amazement  upon 
what  they  regard  as  the  clumsy  grammatical  construction 
of  our  language. 

As  has  been  shown,  Chinese  characters  are,  to  a  large 
extent,  mental  pictures  of  the  ideas  which  they  are  intended 
to  express.  They  hint  at  the  thought,  but  give  no  clew 
to  the  sound  or  pronunciation.  There  is  absolutely  noth- 
ing about  a  Chinese  character  that  will  give  the  perplexed 
student  even  a  faint  hint  as  to  how  it  shall  be  uttered  by 
the  voice.  And  this  is  a  generic  point  of  difference  be- 
tween the  written  language  of  China  and  those  of  America 
and  Europe.  There,  characters  paint  the  idea ;  the  use  of 


THE  LANGUAGE  203 

it  in  speech  must  be  learned  separately.  Here  the  word, 
or  combination  of  letters,  is  more  of  a  guide  to  correct 
pronunciation  than  to  the  thought  of  which  it  is  supposed 
to  be  the  sign. 

While  the  Chinese  tongue  discloses  various  lines  of 
thought,  delicate  turns  of  speech,  and,  so  to  speak,  ac- 
curate shades  of  idea  unknown  in  English,  there  are  many 
subjects  in  which  the  language  is  totally  devoid  of  words, 
many  ideas  for  which  there  are  no  forms  of  expression, 
simply  because  those  ideas  have  never  entered  the  Chinese 
head.  In  the  whole  range  of  scientific  language,  for  ex- 
ample, and  the  simpler  terms  and  phrases  used  in  our  text- 
books in  common  schools,  no  equivalent  expressions  are 
found  in  Chinese,  because  the  sciences  and  even  the  simpler 
studies  are  unknown  to  them. 

The  really  serious  difficulties  inherent  in  the  Chinese 
language,  and  which  render  it  an  almost  insurmountable 
barrier  to  any  thorough  knowledge  of  the  people,  lie  in  the 
use  of  the  language  in  conversation.  No  amount  of  book 
study  will  enable  a  person  to  speak  it.  It  must  be  learned 
from  the  lips  of  a  living  teacher.  With  any  amount  of 
drill  it  requires  a  quick  ear  and  great  flexibility  of  the 
vocal  organs  to  acquire  accurate  pronunciation.  So  serious 
is  the  difficulty,  that  it  may  be  accepted  as  a  rule  that  no 
person  over  thirty  years  of  age  can  learn  to  speak  Chinese 
correctly,  as  the  vocal  organs,  after  that  period,  appear  to 
have  lost  a  portion  of  their  flexibility.  Many  persons 
under  that  age  fail  to  acquire  a  command  of  the  language 


204  CHINA 

even  with  the  most  faithful  effort.  Not  one  foreign 
speaker  of  Chinese  in  ten  can  make  the  ordinary  Chinese 
cat  call. 

As  a  rule,  the  vowel  sounds  are  simple  and  easy.  The 
consonants  are  peculiar,  and  some  of  them  almost  beyond 
the  reach  of  the  vocal  organs  of  foreigners. 

The  best — that  is,  the  most  expert  foreign  authorities — 
disagree  as  to  the  best  approximate  representation  in  letters 
of  any  alphabet  of  many  of  these  sounds.  It  probably  will 
never  be  settled  whether  the  Chinese  word  for  "  man " 
should  begin  with  j  or  r  ;  the  fact  being  that  the  exact 
sound  is  an  intermediate  one,  almost  impossible  to  any  for- 
eigner, between  the  two.  The  writer  once  asked  each  of 
several  American  and  European  scholars  learned  in  the 
Chinese  language,  who  were  guests  at  his  table,  how  the 
Chinese  word  meaning  "  porridge  "  should  be  represented 
with  English  letters.  He  received  the  following  replies  : 
"  Chou"  "  chow"  "  ckeu"  "  chau"  "  tcheau"  "  djou"  and 
"  tseau."  In  like  manner,  the  word  for  "  fowl  "  is  trans- 
literated by  different  Anglo-Chinese  authorities  in  the  fol- 
lowing manner  :  "  Chi"  "  ki"  "  djt"  "  kyi?  and  "  tsi" 
And  all  of  these  different  modes  of  representation  refer  to 
the  common,  plain  hen. 

The  Chinese,  curious  in  their  language  as  in  everything 
else,  seem  unable  to  catch  the  differences  between  our 
liquid  sounds  represented  by  /,  m,  n,  and  r.  They  confuse 
and  misplace  them  in  their  efforts  to  speak  English.  Yet 
each  of  these  sounds  is  constantly  and  correctly  used  by 


THE  LANGUAGE  205 

them  in  their  native  tongue.  There  is  a  large  class  of  Chi- 
nese words  having  an  initial  sound  fairly  represented  by  sb 
as  initial,  and  another,  smaller  but  numerous,  which  must  be 
represented  by  those  letters  reversed,  or  fo,  as  the  initial 
sound. 

Again,  all  words  which,  if  spelled  in  English  letters, 
would  begin  with  cb,  />,  and  /,  are  subdivided  into  two 
classes.  There  is  an  aspirated  ck,  p%  and  *,  and  an  unaspir- 
ated  cb,  />,  and  t.  If  by  mistake  one  aspirates  an  initial  / 
where  it  ought  not  to  be  aspirated,  or  the  reverse,  he,  by 
that  error,  changes  entirely  the  meaning  of  the  word  spoken. 
Thus,  " tan"  the  /  being  unaspirated,  means  an  egg,  and 
exactly  the  same  sound  with  an  aspirated  /  means  charcoal. 
The  writer  once  heard  a  venerable  missionary  address  the 
Deity  in  prayer  before  a  crowded  Chinese  audience  as  "  O 
Thou  Omniverous  God."  He  meant  to  say  "  omniscient," 
but  used  an  aspirated  cb  when  the  other  would  have  better 
served  his  purpose.  On  another  occasion  a  missionary 
saw  with  astonishment  an  audience  hurriedly  leave  his 
chapel  in  response  to  what  he  supposed  was  a  courteous 
invitation  from  his  lips  to  them  to  be  seated.  In  point  of 
fact,  however,  he  was  not  giving  them  a  welcome,  but  as- 
suring them  that  they  had  made  a  mistake  in  entering.  An 
aspirated  t  caused  all  the  misunderstanding.  While  it  is 
true  that  an  unaspirated  <:£,  />,  and  /  represent  very  closely 
the  same  sounds  as  £,  £,  and  d,  they  still  are  not  exactly 
the  same.  Any  attempt  to  use  those  sounds,  while  they 
would  doubtless  enable  the  speaker  to  be  understood,  would 


206  CHINA 

at  the  same  time  effectually  prevent  him  from  speaking  ac- 
curate Chinese.  And  this  fact  fitly  illustrates  the  exceed- 
ingly delicate  gradations  of  some  of  the  sounds  in  the  lan- 
guage. 

Another  broad  peculiarity,  which  affects  every  word 
spoken  in  Chinese,  and  forbids  all  attempt  at  reduction  to 
alphabetical  form,  remains  to  be  noticed.  In  English  and 
most  other  tongues  the  sound  of  what  is  called  a  word  con- 
veys a  single  and  invariable  idea  to  the  person  to  whom  it 
is  spoken.  The  tone  in  which  the  word  is  uttered  may 
serve  to  indicate  inquiry,  contempt,  sarcasm,  surprise, 
anger,  or  any  other  emotion ;  but  the  fundamental,  the  root 
idea,  as  we  may  call  it,  which  is  conveyed  by  the  sound  re- 
mains always  the  same.  Thus  in  our  tongue  a  man  is  al- 
ways a  man,  whether  the  word  is  uttered  with  sudden  ex- 
plosive force,  as  in  anger,  with  rising  inflection,  as  in  in- 
quiry, or  with  any  other  variety  of  intonation. 

All  this  is  changed  in  Chinese.  Here  the  tone  of  utter- 
ance affects,  or  rather  determines,  the  root  idea  as  much  as 
the  sound  itself  does.  The  tone  is  equal  partner  with  the 
sound  in  fixing  the  idea  to  be  conveyed  ;  and  any  error  in 
the  one  is  as  fatal  to  the  correct  expression  of  any  thought 
intended  to  be  conveyed  by  the  speaker  as  an  error  in  the 
other.  In  Chinese  a  man  ceases  to  be  a  man  the  instant 
you  change  the  tone  of  your  voice  in  uttering  the  word. 
He  may  be  a  disease,  a  nightingale,  or  a  carrot,  but  he  can 
be  a  man  in  only  one  tone  of  voice. 

In  the  standard  or  mandarin  dialect,  as  it  is  called  among 


THE  LANGUAGE  207 

foreigners,  there  are  four  of  these  tones  or  inflections  of  the 
voice  :  first,  a  high-keyed,  explosive  tone ;  second,  a  rising 
tone,  as  in  asking  a  question  with  us ;  third,  a  curving  in- 
flection ;  and  fourth,  a  falling  inflection.  A  sound  uttered 
in  one  of  these  tones  has  a  meaning  devoid  of  all  relation- 
ship to  or  connection  with  exactly  the  same  sound  uttered 
in  either  one  of  the  other  three.  Thus,  to  take  the  sound 
"  man  "  again,  if  uttered  in  the  first  tone,  it  means  brazen- 
faced ;  in  the  second  tone,  to  hide  ;  in  the  third,  full ;  and 
in  the  fourth,  slow.  Another  sound  which  might  be  rep- 
resented by  our  word  "  one,"  if  used  in  the  first  tone, 
means  warm  ;  in  the  second,  educated  ;  in  the  third,  steady  ; 
and  in  the  fourth,  to  ask. 

With  peculiarities  of  consonant  sounds  unknown  in  any 
Western  tongue,  and  with  a  special  tone  to  each  idea,  a 
mistake  in  which  changes  the  entire  meaning,  it  is  no  easy 
matter  to  speak  a  single  word  of  Chinese  correctly.  A 
long  and  steady  drill  of  the  vocal  organs  is  necessary  to  the 
accurate  and  ready  pronunciation  of  each  separate  character. 
At  the  outset  of  his  Chinese  studies  the  author  devoted 
four  hours  each  day  for  eight  weary  months  to  a  drill  on 
the  tone  table — a  table  in  which  each  sound  in  the  language 
is  given  in  the  four  different  tones — and  for  many  months 
afterwards  had  occasional  reviews  of  it. 

There  are  as  many  variations  in  these  tones  for  the  sake 
of  rhythm  as  there  are  exceptions  to  some  rules  of  English 
grammar — variations  which  add  greatly  to  the  labour  of  the 
student.  Thus,  for  example,  if,  in  any  word  of  two  syl- 


208  CHINA 

lables  or  sounds,  the  second  is  the  emphatic  syllable  and  is 
of  the  fourth  tone,  the  tone  is  changed  to  the  first.  But 
the  presence  of  so  many  varying  inflections  in  Chinese 
gives  a  rhythmic  swing  to  the  language  which  makes  it 
pleasant  to  speak  and  exceedingly  grateful  to  the  ear.  With 
some  speakers  whose  inflections  are  clear-cut  and  accurate, 
it  sounds  much  like  chanting.  One  might  expect  this 
effect,  since  it  is  impossible  to  speak  in  a  monotone,  and 
the  voice,  in  any  sentence,  must  pass  through  five  notes  of 
the  musical  scale. 

But  the  pleasure  of  Chinese  speech  comes,  if  at  all,  as  a 
well-earned  reward  for  indomitable  perseverance  in  master- 
ing the  most  difficult  language  on  earth,  and  is  interrupted, 
often  in  the  study  and  not  seldom  afterwards,  by  the  most 
annoying  and  absurd  blunders.  A  volume  might  be  filled 
with  them.  A  missionary  once  informed  his  audience  that 
the  Saviour,  when  on  earth,  "  went  about  eating  cake." 
He  intended  to  say  "  healing  the  sick  "  ;  but  an  aspirate 
wrongly  placed  changed  healing  into  eating,  while  an  error 
in  tone  made  cakes  out  of  those  who  were  ill. 

Upon  one  occasion,  when  the  writer  sat  at  his  dinner- 
table  as  the  host  of  a  large  party,  he  called  the  attention  of 
his  Chinese  butler  to  some  little  item  that  was  lacking  from 
the  table,  and  directed  him  to  supply  it.  The  butler  ap- 
peared puzzled,  asked  if  the  article  named  was  desired,  and 
on  being  assured  that  it  was,  and  must  be  produced  at  once 
and  without  more  words,  disappeared,  and  in  a  moment  re- 
turned, bringing  upon  a  tray,  and  with  that  wonderful 


THE  LANGUAGE  209 

gravity  which  never  deserts  a  well-trained  Chinese  servant, 
the  kitchen  poker — an  iron  rod  some  three  feet  in  length, 
knobbed  at  one  end  and  sharpened  to  a  point  at  the  other. 
He  probably  believed  that  the  host  was  about  to  brain  one 
of  his  guests ;  but  that  was  none  of  his  business,  and  the 
poker  was  gravely  presented  to  his  master,  who  had  simply 
placed  an  aspirate  where  it  did  not  belong. 

The  foregoing  statements  apply  accurately  to  the  Chi- 
nese language  as  spoken  by  at  least  four-fifths  of  the  popu- 
lation. While  in  certain  regions  there  are  slight  local  pe- 
culiarities of  pronunciation  and  idiom,  these  are  nowhere 
sufficiently  serious  to  deserve  mention  with  a  single  excep- 
tion. This  exception  consists  of  a  strip  of  country  border- 
ing upon  the  seaboard,  and  extending  from  a  point  north  of 
Shanghai  to  the  extreme  southern  limit  of  the  empire.  It 
runs  back  inland  in  distances  varying  from  fifty  to  one 
hundred  and  fifty  miles.  Throughout  this  region,  while 
the  written  language  is  the  same  as  in  other  parts  of  China, 
the  spoken  tongue  is  broken  up  into  a  number  of  local  dia- 
lects. Pronunciation  of  the  characters  differs  so  widely 
in  districts  that  are  contiguous  that  it  is  commonly  said 
among  that  Chinese  that  "  people  living  upon  one  bank  of 
a  river  cannot  understand  a  word  uttered  by  their  neigh- 
bours upon  the  other."  Since  Chinese  officials  are  never 
allowed  to  hold  posts  of  duty  in  the  provinces  where  they 
were  born,  those  on  duty  in  these  districts  can  only  com- 
municate with  the  people  whom  they  govern  by  the  use  of 
interpreters.  Chinese  who  emigrate  to  the  United  States, 


210  CHINA 

and,  in  fact,  to  other  foreign  parts,  all  come  from  within 
this  area.  Hence,  with  few  exceptions,  none  of  them 
speak  or  understand  the  correct,  standard  Chinese. 

A  chapter  upon  the  language  of  China  would  hardly  be 
complete  unless  it  at  least  mentioned  a  nondescript  tongue 
that  has  sprung  up  within  modern  times  at  the  points  where 
foreigners  are  by  treaty  allowed  to  reside  and  pursue  their 
varied  callings.  Few  of  these  learn  the  language,  and 
their  only  medium  of  communication  with  the  natives  in 
the  transaction  of  business  is  through  the  medium  of  what 
is  known  as  "  pidgin  English."  "  Pidgin  "  is  the  net  re- 
sult of  the  native  attempt  to  pronounce  the  word  "  busi- 
ness." Hence  the  proper  name  of  the  jargon  would  be 
"  business  English."  With  the  exception  of  a  few  mongrel 
words  gathered  no  one  knows  how  or  whence,  it  consists  of 
the  Chinese  idiom  literally  translated  into  English;  the 
pronunciation,  however,  being  varied  to  suit  the  exigencies 
of  the  native  powers  of  speech  and  understanding.  A 
couple  of  incidents  will  show  how  absurd  and  utterly  un- 
dignified this  mode  of  communication  is,  and  will  give  all 
necessary  explanation  of  its  peculiarities.  The  reader  may 
be  a  trifle  astonished  and  perhaps  incredulous  at  the  asser- 
tion, which,  however,  is  founded  in  fact,  that  nine-tenths 
of  the  enormous  business  done  between  foreigners  and  na- 
tives in  China  is  done  by  means  of  this  grotesque  gibberish. 

A  young  man  who  called  upon  two  young  ladies  was 
gravely  informed  by  the  Chinese  servant  who  opened  the 
door :  "  That  two  piecey  girlo  no  can  see.  Number  one 


THE  LANGUAGE  211 

piecey  top  side  makee  washee,  washee.  Number  two 
piecey  go  outside,  makee  walkee,  walkee."  By  which  he 
meant  to  say  that  the  elder  of  the  two  was  taking  a  bath 
up-stairs,  and  the  younger  had  gone  out. 


THE  LITERARY  AND  MANDARIN  CLASS 

PIERRE  LEROT-BEAULIEU 

THE  curse  of  China  and  the  main  reason  why  her 
remarkable  people,  who  once  deserved  to  be  com- 
pared with  the  ancient  Romans,  have  sunk  to  the 
degraded  condition  in  which  we  find  them  at  present,  is  the 
mandarinate,  which  she  has  the  misfortune  to  consider  one 
of  her  chief  glories.  It  is  this  corrupt  and  antiquated 
system  that  is  destroying  the  Celestial  Empire.  It  has  often 
been  observed  that  nations  generally  have  the  Government 
they  deserve,  and  it  is  undoubtedly  true  that  the  administra- 
tion of  China  is,  in  a  measure,  the  logical  result  of  her 
geographical  situation  and  singular  history,  to  which  might 
be  added  the  peculiar  character  of  her  people.  On  the 
other  hand,  there  is  no  question  that  the  worst  traits  of  the 
national  character  are  accentuated  in  the  mandarin  class 
which  governs  the  country,  and  saps  its  activity  and  energy. 
Theoretically,  the  Chinese  Government  is  based  on 
paternal  principles ;  as  a  matter  of  fact,  it  is  entirely  in  the 
hands  of  the  class  known  as  "  literati,"  from  whose  ranks 
all  the  state  officials,  or  mandarins,  are  recruited ;  and  if  we 
wish  to  understand  the  primary  causes  of  the  misgovern- 
ment  of  the  Celestial  Empire,  we  must  become  thoroughly 
acquainted  with  the  origin  and  manners  of  the  mandarins, 


LITERARY  AND  MANDARIN  CLASS    213 

who  are  not  hereditary,  but  recruited  from  the  mass  of  the 
people  in  the  most  democratic  manner  in  the  world,  by 
means  of  public  competitive  examinations.  These  ex- 
aminations confer  three  honourary  degrees,  which  might  be 
likened  to  those  bestowed  by  our  Universities :  Bachelors, 
Masters  of  Arts  and  Doctors.  The  degree  of  Bachelor  is 
competed  for  in  each  district  (there  are  sixty  districts  per 
province),  and  that  of  Master  of  Arts  in  the  eighteen 
provincial  capitals ;  that  of  Doctor,  on  the  other  hand,  is 
only  to  be  obtained  in  Peking.  One  may  imagine  the 
esteem  in  which  these  degrees  are  held  by  the  people  when 
I  mention  that  in  1897,  when  I  was  in  Shanghai,  no  less 
than  14,000  candidates  came  up  for  examination  at  Nan- 
king, with  only  150  honours  to  be  distributed  amongst 
them.  It  is  considered  a  great  honour  for  a  family  to  in- 
clude a  literate  amongst  its  members,  and  his  obtaining  his 
degree  is  celebrated  throughout  the  entire  province  which 
enjoys  the  privilege  of  being  his  birthplace.  Should  he  be 
fortunate  enough  to  obtain  his  laureate  at  Peking,  he  is 
welcomed  on  his  return  to  his  native  town  as  a  veritable 
conquering  hero.  It  is  quite  true  that,  in  order  to  pass  his 
examination,  he  has  to  go  through  an  amount  of  physical 
suffering  and  patient  endurance  which  would  deter  any  but 
a  Chinaman  from  the  attempt.  Each  candidate  is  shut  up 
for  three  whole  days  in  a  box-like  cell  four  feet  square,  in 
which  he  cannot  even  lie  down,  with  no  other  companions 
than  his  brush,  paper  and  stick  of  Chinese  ink;  and  barely 
an  examination  passes  without  some  student  or  other  being 


214  CHINA 

found  dead  in  his  cell.  According  to  popular  rumour,  it  is 
said  that  the  all-pervading  corruption  penetrates  even  into 
these  cells,  and  that  not  a  few  candidates  succeed  less 
through  their  merits  than  through  the  golden  gate  ;  and  it 
has  even  been  observed  that  the  sons  and  near  relatives  of 
existing  high  functionaries  are  pretty  sure  to  pass  j  but,  as  a 
rule,  however,  after  the  examinations  that  the  real  difficult- 
ies of  those  who  are  not  rich  and  who  are  without  influential 
friends  begin.  One  might  naturally  expect  that  after  the 
trouble,  fatigue  and  expense  of  the  examination  were  over, 
some  post  or  other  would  surely  be  forthcoming  to  recom- 
pense the  efforts  of  the  candidate ;  but  the  contrary  is  the 
rule,  and  many  a  man  has  had  to  wait  a  lifetime  before  ob- 
taining the  reward  for  which  he  has  striven  so  hard. 

Nevertheless  those  students  who  seem  to  possess  excep- 
tional ability  generally  push  themselves  forward  in  the  fol- 
lowing manner :  a  syndicate  has  been  formed  which  ad- 
vances the  funds  necessary  to  assist  the  aspirant  in  mount- 
ing the  first  rung  on  the  ladder  of  fame,  and  to  help  him 
further,  until  he  is  in  a  position  to  return  the  money  bor- 
rowed either  in  cash  or  kind,  with  a  very  handsome  inter- 
est. The  idea  of  exploiting  public  offices  as  a  sort  of  com- 
mercial concern  is,  to  say  the  least,  ingenious,  and,  what  is 
more,  it  seems  to  be  occasionally  exceedingly  remunerative. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  expense  and  the  intrigue  that  such 
a  pernicious  system  must  necessarily  involve  can  better  be 
imagined  than  described.  As  an  instance  in  point,  I  was 
assured  that  the  position  of  Tao-tai  or  Governor  of 


LITERARY  AND  MANDARIN  CLASS    215 

Shanghai,  worth,  for  not  more  than  three  years,  a  salary  of 
6,000  taels,  or  £900  a  year,  was  recently  bought  for  over 
^30,000.  The  works  of  Confucius,  those  of  his  disciples, 
of  Mencius  and  of  other  philosophers  who  enlightened  the 
world  two  thousand  years  ago,  and  a  mass  of  quaint  lore 
derived  from  the  ancient  Chinese  chronicles,  form  the  sub- 
ject of  these  extraordinary  examinations  and  the  students 
have  to  learn  some  hundred  volumes  as  nearly  as  possible 
by  heart,  memory  being  the  one  thing  most  highly  prized 
by  the  Board  of  Examiners.  The  student  is  expected  to 
quote  certain  extracts  word  by  word  as  they  appear  in  the 
books,  and  his  examination  papers  must,  moreover,  be  em- 
bellished by  a  great  quantity  of  quotations — the  more  the 
better.  An  elegant  style  is  obtained  only  through  acquaint- 
ance with  as  many  of  the  60,000  Chinese  characters  as  pos- 
sible, from  which  the  student  is  expected  to  make  an  ap- 
propriate selection,  and,  as  each  sign  means  a  word,  and 
not  a  few  of  these  are  almost  unknown,  and  only  to  be 
found  in  some  hidden  corner  of  an  ancient  volume,  the 
waste  of  time  is  appalling.  The  preparatory  instruction, 
therefore,  simply  consists  in  cramming  the  wretched  candi- 
date with  a  knowledge  of  as  great  a  number  of  signs  or 
characters  and  quotations  from  the  Celestial  classics  as  pos- 
sible. One  of  the  most  curious  features  of  the  Chinese  is 
that,  although  everybody  knows  how  to  read  and  write  a 
little,  no  one  can  do  so  perfectly,  for  the  simple  reason  that 
no  Chinaman  has  ever  been  known  to  master  completely 
the  voluminous  alphabet  of  his  country.  The  most  ignorant 


216  CHINA 

has  acquired  some  ten  or  a  dozen  characters  relating  to  his 
trade  and  sufficient  for  his  purpose.  When  a  man  has 
mastered  6,000  or  8,000  he  is  considered  learned,  and, 
when  we  come  to  think  of  it,  there  must  be  very  few  ideas 
that  cannot  be  expressed  by  so  many  thousands  of  words. 
Many  of  the  higher  literati  manage  to  acquire  even  20,000 
words,  and  the  state  of  the  mind  of  that  man  may  safely  be 
left  to  the  reader's  imagination,  especially  if  we  reflect  that 
he  must  have  passed  his  entire  youth  studying  by  rote  thou- 
sands of  signs  only  distinguishable  from  one  another  by  the 
minutest  strokes,  and  in  acquiring  a  prodigious  amount  of 
obsolete  knowledge  from  classical  books  and  annals  whose 
authors  lived  in  remote  antiquity.  Of  late  years  a  slight 
modification  has  been  introduced  in  the  shape  of  certain 
concessions  to  what  is  officially  called  the  "  new  Western 
culture."  To  the  usual  questions  selected  from  the  works 
of  Confucius  and  other  philosophers  have  now  been  added 
the  identification  of  names  mentioned  in  modern  geography, 
and  since  the  Chino-Japanese  War,  the  examiners  at  Nan- 
king ask  their  candidates  some  very  grave  and  informing 
queries  in  astronomy,  as  :  "  What  is  the  apparent  diameter 
of  the  sun  as  seen  from  the  earth  ?  and  what  would  be  that 
of  the  earth  as  seen  from  the  sun  or  from  some  other 
planet  ? "  The  following  sage  question  is  typical  of  both 
examiner  and  examined  :  "  Why  is  the  character  in  writing 
which  represents  the  moon  closed  at  the  bottom  and  the  one 
which  represents  the  sun  left  open  ?  " 

Here  are  two  examples  quoted  by  Mr.  Henry  Norman  : 


LITERARY  AND  MANDARIN  CLASS     217 

"  Confucius  hath  said,  c  In  what  majesty  did  Chun  and  Yu 
reign  over  the  Empire,  as  though  the  Empire  was  as  noth- 
ing unto  them  !  '  Confucius  hath  said  :  c  Yao  was  verily 
a  great  sovereign.  How  glorious  he  was !  Heaven  alone 
is  grand,  and  Yao  only  worthy  to  enter  it.  How  exalted 
was  his  virtue !  The  people  could  find  no  words  where- 
with to  qualify  it.'  "  This  was  the  theme  that  had  to  be 
developed  by  many  of  a  flower  of  rhetoric.  It  is  only 
through  the  study  of  these  books,  written  twenty  centuries 
ago,  and  encumbered  by  parables  and  affected  maxims  and 
of  ancient  annals  crammed  with  fantastic  legends  believed 
in  as  absolute  facts,  that  are  selected  the  members  of  the 
class  who  are  expected  to  govern  China ! 

The  result  of  this  method  of  education  was  exemplified 
as  late  as  1897,  two  years  after  a  war  which  had  brought 
the  Chinese  Empire  within  an  inch  of  ruin,  when  a  censor, 
one  of  the  highest  officials  in  the  Empire,  addressed  a  docu- 
ment to  the  Emperor,  wherein  he  protested  against  the  con- 
cessions made  to  the  inventions  of  the  Western  barbarians, 
which  he  did  not  hesitate  to  qualify  as  calculated  to  disturb 
the  peace  of  the  dead.  Instead  of  constructing  railways, 
he  gravely  insisted  it  were  wiser  to  offer  a  handsome  re- 
ward to  the  man  who  should  recover  the  secret  of  making 
flying  chariots  to  be  drawn  by  phoenixes  which  certainly 
existed  in  the  good  old  times.  A  little  time  previously  a 
member  of  the  Tsung-li-Yamen  had  lifted  his  voice  to 
protest  against  the  various  railway  embankments  and  the 
nails  that  studded  the  lines,  which,  he  believed,  were  likely 


218  CHINA 

to  inconvenience  and  wound  the  sacred  dragons  who  pro- 
tect the  cities  of  the  Empire,  and  who  dwell  beneath  the 
soil.  The  strange  superstitions  of  the  fengshui  geomancy 
dealing  with  the  circulation  through  the  air  of  good  and 
evil  spirits,  and  with  the  prescribed  height  to  which  build- 
ings may  be  erected,  and  the  exact  positions  of  doors  and 
other  like  grave  matters,  which,  it  seems,  unless  they  be 
properly  attended  to,  are  apt  to  upset  and  offend  the  flying 
spirits  in  their  progress  through  space,  exercise  a  greater 
empire  over  the  minds  of  Chinese  officials  in  the  very  high- 
est places  than  matters  which  we  should  consider  of  the 
greatest  importance. 

The  fact  that  the  mandarinate  is  recruited  from  the 
democracy  renders  it  even  more  pernicious  than  if  it  consti- 
tuted a  hereditary  aristocracy,  for,  as  it  stands,  nobody  has 
any  interest  in  overthrowing  it.  The  most  intelligent  peo- 
ple try  to  enter  it,  and  it  attracts  all  the  most  gifted  men  in 
the  Empire,  but  only  to  corrupt  them.  The  literary  class 
enjoys  an  enormous  prestige,  and  the  poorest  man  lives  in 
the  hope  of  seeing  his  son  one  of  its  learned  members.  It, 
therefore,  does  not  excite  any  of  that  hatred  usually  pro- 
voked by  caste  privilege,  and  thus  does  not  stand  the  least 
danger  of  being  upset.  On  the  other  hand,  the  condition 
to  which  it  has  reduced  the  Celestial  Empire  is  a  jcondem- 
nation.of  the  system  of  examination  for  Government  office, 
and  many  a  Western  State  might  do  well  to  study  this 
question  and  to  take  its  lesson  to  heart.  That  its  effects 
have  been  more  accentuated  in  China  than  elsewhere  is 


LITERARY  AND  MANDARIN  CLASS     219 

undeniable,  being  the  result  of  diverse  historic  and  eth- 
nographical circumstances  peculiar  to  that  nation.  The 
Chinese  reached  a  high  state  of  civilization  long  before 
our  era,  and  being  more  numerous  and  intelligent  than 
their  neighbours,  so  soon  as  they  were  cemented  into  one 
compact  nationality  they  proceeded  to  subjugate  Indo- 
China  and  Korea  ;  and  so  it  came  to  pass  that  China  had 
no  dangerous  foes  to  disturb  her,  Japan  being  isolated  in 
her  island  Empire,  and  she  was  separated  from  India  by  a 
formidable  mountain  barrier,  and  from  the  West  by  im- 
mense deserts.  From  that  time  the  Chinese  had  nothing 
to  trouble  them,  and  had  but  to  live  in  quiet  admiration  of 
the  labours  of  their  ancestors  who  were  the  authors  of  the 
perfect  peace  which  they  enjoyed,  and  thus,  little  by  little, 
they  accustomed  themselves  to  look  upon  them  as  superior 
beings  and  as  types  of  perfection.  More  advanced  than 
any  of  their  tributary  subjects,  and  having  nothing  to  fear 
from  competition,  they  became  lost  in  self-admiration,  or 
rather,  in  the  admiration  of  those  who  had  made  their  coun- 
try what  it  was,  and  ended  by  believing  that  no  further 
progress  was  either  necessary  or  possible,  and  thus  are  now 
absolutely  non-progressive. 

The  isolation  and  the  want  of  emulation  in  which  China 
has  existed  for  so  many  centuries  have  destroyed  whatever 
energy  and  initiative  she  might  otherwise  have  possessed. 
It  should  be  remarked,  however,  that  the  Roman  Empire 
was  in  very  much  the  same  condition,  and  for  the  same 
reason  at  the  time  of  the  invasion  of  the  Barbarians,  and 


220  CHINA 

that  outside  the  moral  revolution  effected  by  Christianity — 
which,  by  the  way,  only  obtained  its  fullest  development 
by  the  overthrow  of  the  Empire — no  further  progress  was 
being  made.  The  sterile  admiration  of  bygone  greatness, 
therefore,  is  the  foundation-stone  of  the  doctrines  of  Con- 
fucius. The  Chinese  people,  who  are  essentially  practical 
and  positive,  and  less  given,  perhaps,  than  any  other  in  the 
world  to  study  general  questions  and  lofty  ideals,  soon  de- 
teriorated under  so  retrogressive  a  system,  and  eventually 
lost  all  sight  of  the  origin  of  many  of  their  most  important 
institutions.  Religion  and  morals  were  reduced  to  mere  rites 
and  ceremonies  that  only  conceal  the  emptiness  of  Chinese 
civilization,  and  so  the  nation  came  to  the  conclusion  that 
the  one  thing  in  this  world  worth  the  doing  was  to  save 
appearances,  and  conceal  corruption  beneath  a  flimsy  mask. 
The  isolation  of  China  and  her  superiority  over  her 
neighbours  produced  another  very  grave  consequence — the 
ruin  of  that  martial  spirit  which  has  obliterated  all  idea  of 
duty  and  sacrifice.  The  military  mandarins  are  despised 
by  their  civil  colleagues,  and  their  tests  consist  almost  ex- 
clusively of  physical  exercises  such  as  archery  and  the  lift- 
ing of  heavy  weights.  "  One  does  not  use  good  iron  to 
make  nails,  nor  a  good  man  to  make  a  soldier,"  says  the 
Chinese  proverb;  and  thus  it  is  that  the  Chinese  army  is 
recruited  from  a  horde  of  blackguards  and  plunderers,  whose 
only  good  qualities  are  their  contempt  for  life  and  physical 
endurance,  which  might  under  proper  management  turn 
this  raw  material  into  an  excellent  army. 


HONOURARY  DISTINCTIONS 

HENRT  CHARLES  SIRR 

THE  Emperor,  being  the  fountain  of  all  honourary 
distinctions,  elevates  the  meanest  subject  in  his 
dominions,  upon  proof  of  his  literary  attainments, 
to  the  highest  offices  in  the  State,  and  at  his  pleasure  de- 
grades them  again  ;  he  is  irresponsible  in  his  caprices,  ex- 
cept to  the  Ruler  of  Heaven,  who  he  is  considered  to  repre- 
sent, and  by  whose  pleasure  he  is  understood  to  rule  and 
govern  the  Empire.  In  like  manner  he  also  nominates  his 
successor,  selecting  the  most  capable  of  his  sons,  or,  in  case 
of  necessity,  passing  over  his  own  family  he  names  one 
from  amongst  the  Princes  of  the  Blood  Royal,  not  a  mem- 
ber of  his  immediate  family,  to  ascend  the  throne  after  his 
decease ;  and  should  he  prefer  a  younger  son,  in  conse- 
quence of  merit  and  ability,  he  receives  the  highest 
eulogiums.  Should,  however,  the  successor,  whom  he  has 
named,  and  who  has  been  declared  with  the  usual  solemni- 
ties, commit  any  offense  against  the  laws,  or  fail  in  the  sub- 
mission or  deference  due  to  the  Emperor,  he  may  be  ex- 
cluded from  the  succession  and  another  may  be  named  in 
his  stead. 

The  Emperor  and  his  immediate  family  are  clothed  in 
yellow,  which   is  the  royal  colour;  and  his  silken  robes, 


222  CHINA 

and  those  of  his  eldest  son,  are  embroidered  in  gold,  with 
the  Lung,  or  dragon  with  five  claws,  which  it  is  unlawful 
for  a  subject  to  wear;  this  device  corresponding  with  the 
royal  arms.  The  robe  of  state  has  four  Lungs  depicted 
upon  it,  one  on  each  shoulder,  another  in  front  and  one  on 
the  back.  The  Son  of  Heaven  wears  a  pearl  necklace, 
and  so  do  his  ministers  of  state  ;  the  button,  or  ball,  which 
surmounts  the  cap,  being  also  used  as  a  mark  of  rank,  the 
Emperor  is  distinguished  by  three  golden  dragons,  one  above 
the  other,  each  adorned  with  four  pearls,  having  one  pearl 
between  each,  and  a  very  large  one  above  them  all.  The 
Emperor's  eldest  son,  or  the  successor  nominated  to  the 
throne,  has  three  pearls  less  than  the  Emperor  upon  his  cap 
and  wears  a  coral  necklace.  The  younger  sons  of  the 
Emperor  have  five  pearls  less  than  their  father  upon  their 
caps,  and  their  necklaces  are  of  coral,  but  smaller  than  that 
worn  by  the  successor  to  the  throne. 

The  other  princes,  not  of  the  family  of  the  Emperor,  and 
the  mandarins  of  the  first  class,  wear  purple  robes,  em- 
broidered with  a  bird  called  Fung,  the  princes  being  distin- 
guished by  a  yellow  girdle  ;  they  each  wear  a  ruby  button 
or  ball,  on  the  cap,  and  the  mandarins  have  four  agates  and 
rubies  on  the  girdle. 

The  mandarins  of  the  second  class  and  all  others  wear 
purple  robes,  but  these  are  distinguished  by  having  a  cock 
embroidered  upon  them,  a  red  coral  button  on  the  cap,  and 
four  golden  squares  and  red  coral  buttons  on  the  girdle. 

The  third  class  have  a  peacock  on  the  robe,  a  sapphire 


HONOURARY  DISTINCTIONS          223 

button  on  the  cap  and  four  golden  squares  and  sapphires 
on  the  girdle. 

The  fourth  class  wear  a  pelican  embroidered  upon  the 
robe,  a  deep,  purple-coloured,  opaque  stone  button  on  the 
cap,  and  their  girdle  has  four  golden  squares  and  a  silver 
button  to  distinguish  it. 

The  fifth  class  have  a  silver  pheasant  embroidered  on  the 
robe,  a  transparent  crystal  button  on  the  cap,  with  a  girdle 
similar  to  that  worn  by  the  fourth  class. 

The  sixth  class  are  distinguished  by  a  stork  on  their 
robes,  with  a  jade-stone  button  on  the  cap  and  four  silver 
squares  upon  the  girdle. 

The  eighth  class  have  a  quail  upon  the  robe,  a  plain 
golden  button  on  the  cap  and  a  silver  button  on  the  girdle. 

The  ninth  class  have  a  sparrow  on  the  robe,  a  silver  but- 
ton on  the  cap  and  another  on  the  girdle. 

The  military  mandarins  wear  the  same  buttons  in  their 
caps  and  the  same  girdles  which  distinguish  the  respective 
classes  of  their  civil  brethren,  but  the  figures  embroidered 
upon  their  robes  are  dissimilar ;  the  first  class  have  an  im- 
aginary animal  called  Ke-lin^  instead  of  the  Fung;  the 
second,  a  lion ;  the  third  wear  a  panther ;  the  fourth,  a 
tiger;  the  fifth,  a  bear;  the  sixth,  a  very  small  tiger;  the 
seventh  and  eighth,  a  rhinoceros ;  being  distinguished  from 
each  other  only  by  the  buttons  on  their  caps. 

The  scholars  who  have  passed  examinations,  qualifying 
them  as  candidates  for  office,  are  distinguished  by  buttons 
on  their  caps,  according  to  their  qualifications,  and  they  are 


224  CHINA 

divided  into  four  classes,  wearing,  respectively,  chased  gold, 
plain  gold,  chased  silver,  and  plain  silver  buttons,  but  of  a 
smaller  size  than  those  which  are  worn  by  mandarins. 

There  are  about  thirty  descriptions  of  offices  in  which 
the  civil  mandarins  are  employed,  and  those  in  which  mili- 
tary mandarins  are  engaged  are  nearly  as  numerous ;  and 
the  total  number  of  both  classes  is  upwards  of  fourteen 
thousand. 

Besides  the  distinctions  in  dress  each  officer  has  an 
official  seal ;  the  Emperor's  or  great  seal,  which  legalizes 
all  public  acts,  and  the  decisions  of  all  the  tribunals  of  the 
empire,  is  described  to  be  eighteen  inches  square,  and  is 
formed  out  of  yu-cke,  or  jasper,  taken  from  Yn-yu-ckan^  or 
the  great  jasper  mountain ;  this  jasper  is  not  allowed  to  be 
used  for  any  other  purpose. 

Yn-yu-chan  is  a  fruitful  source  for  fables,  connected  with 
the  traditionary  history  of  the  country,  and  among  many 
others  the  following,  which  gives  the  reason  for  this  stone 
being  used  for  the  royal  seal.  S6me  thousands  of  years 
ago,  the  Fong-ho-an,  or  Chinese  phoenix,  was  observed  by 
the  Emperor  of  that  day  to  descend  upon  the  mountain, 
where  he  was  watched  for  many  days  by  the  Emperor  and 
his  whole  court  with  the  greatest  anxiety,  as  he  rested  upon 
an  enormous  unhewn  rock ;  after  he  disappeared,  a  most 
skillful  lapidary  was  despatched  to  visit  the  spot,  under  the 
orders  of  the  Emperor,  who,  having  broken  a  large  frag- 
ment from  the  rock  formed  from  it  the  imperial  seal,  which, 
from  its  having  been  a  portion  of  the  rock  selected  by  the 


HONOURARY  DISTINCTIONS          225 

sacred-bird  as  a  resting-place,  who  is  believed  to  be  the 
forerunner  of  the  golden  age,  is  considered  to  be  possessed 
of  inde;  :ribable  virtue,  and  to  secure  prosperity  to  its  pos- 
sessor. 

The  honourary  seals  which  are  given  to  the  princes  are 
made  of  gold ;  those  of  the  mandarins  of  the  first  class  and 
ministers  of  state  are  composed  of  silver;  while  those  of 
the  inferior  mandarins  are  made  either  of  brass  or  lead,  and 
the  size  is  regulated  according  to  the  magnitude  of  the 
official  appointment  j  and  the  characters  engraven  upon 
these  seals  are  either  Chinese  or  Tartarian,  according 
as  the  individual  is  sprung  from  either  source.  A  seal 
is  also  given  to  any  mandarin  who  may  be  sent  on  a  special 
mission  into  the  provinces,  and  when  seals  are  injured  or 
worn  out  the  officers  must  return  them  to  be  supplied  with 
new  ones. 

The  seals  are  kept  in  golden  boxes,  and  are  carried  be- 
fore the  Emperor,  prince  or  mandarin,  by  two  bearers  upon 
a  litter,  and  they  are  always  laid  on  a  table  by  the  side  of 
the  possessor,  and  covered  with  a  silken  coverlet,  of  a 
colour  and  embroidery  suitable  to  the  rank  of  the  indi- 
vidual. 

The  princes  of  the  blood  royal  are,  either  the  children  of 
the  reigning  Emperor,  those  to  whom  he  gives  his  daugh- 
ters in  marriage,  the  descendants  of  former  dynasties,  or 
those  whose  ancestors  or  themselves  have  been  ennobled  for 
public  services.  They  have  neither  power,  jurisdiction 
nor  authority,  in  the  empire :  they  are  allowed  a  residence 


226  CHINA 

in  the  vicinity  of  the  palace,  with  a  household  and  revenue 
conformable  to  their  rankj  in  return  for  which  they  are 
bound  to  attend  upon  the  Emperor  on  all  public  cere- 
monies, or  whenever  so  required  by  him,  and  they  must 
present  themselves  every  morning  at  the  palace ;  in  addition 
to  which  they  are  subjected  to  the  most  rigorous  regula- 
tions, being  compelled  to  confine  their  intercourse  to  their 
respective  family  circles,  not  being  permitted  to  visit  each 
other,  or  sleep  outside  the  city  of  Peking,  without  the  ex- 
press sanction  of  the  Emperor  ;  the  position  of  these  princes 
cannot  be  considered  very  enviable.  The  names  and  fam- 
ilies of  the  Emperor's  sons  are  enrolled  in  a  yellow  book 
and  those  of  other  princes  in  a  red  one. 

Although  hereditary  honours  are  not  recognized  in  China, 
yet  Confucius  was  so  highly  esteemed,  and  his  memory  is 
so  highly  honoured,  that  his  family  or  descendants  are 
universally  considered  noble,  and  the  head  of  the  family, 
ever  since  the  death  of  the  philosopher,  has  been  distin- 
guished by  the  title  of  Ching-gin-ti-chi-el,  or  the  Repre- 
sentative of  the  Wise  Man ;  every  Emperor  has  recognized 
and  conceded  this  distinction  to  the  family,  and  the  Ching- 
gin-ti-chi-el  attends  the  Emperor's  court  once  in  every 
year.  On  these  occasions  he  is  treated  with  every  mark 
of  distinction,  both  by  the  courtiers  and  the  people;  he  re- 
sides in  Kio-fow,  a  city  in  the  province  Shang-tung,  distin- 
guished by  being  the  birthplace  of  his  wise  and  learned 
progenitor.  An  additional  favour  and  mark  of  distinction 
is  conferred  upon  this  distinguished  family,  by  always  se- 


HONOURARY  DISTINCTIONS          227 

lecting  the  governor  of  the  city  of  Kio-fow  from  its  mem- 
bers, this  being  the  only  exception  or  deviation  from  the 
law,  which  prohibits  any  mandarin  holding  office  in  his  na- 
tive province. 


RELIGIONS  IN  CHINA 

LORD  WILLIAM  GASCOTNE-CECIL 

THE  real  power  of  a  race  lies  in  its  religion  ;  other 
motives  inevitably  tend  to  egotism,  disorganiza- 
tion and  national  death,  and  China  is  no  excep- 
tion to  the  rule;  the  strength  and  the  weakness  of  China 
lie  in  her  religion  and  in  its  absence.  There  are  few  na- 
tions who  set  less  store  by  the  outward  observance  of  re- 
ligion and  yet  there  are  few  nations  with  a  greater  belief  in 
the  supernatural.  On  the  one  hand,  the  temples  are  de- 
serted or  turned  into  schools,  and  the  Chinese  are  believed 
to  have  no  other  motives  than  self-interest.  On  the  other 
hand  the  whole  of  Chinese  life  turns  round  the  relation  of 
man  to  the  spirit  of  his  ancestors  and  to  the  spiritual  world, 
and  the  Chinaman  obviously  believes  that  a  man's  soul  is 
immortal  and  that  its  welfare  has  the  very  closest  connec- 
tion with  the  welfare  of  his  descendant. 

The  commercial  man  will  tell  you  that  the  Chinese  are 
materialists — people  who  have  no  faith ;  and  yet  with 
glorious  inconsistency  he  will  explain  that  the  difficulty  of 
using  Chinese  labour  abroad  is  that  even  the  commonest 
coolie  demands  that  his  body  shall  be  repatriated  and  shall 
lie  in  some  place  which  will  not  hinder  his  son  doing  filial 
worship  to  his  spirit.  The  whole  question  of  what  the 


RELIGIONS  IN  CHINA  229 

race  believes  is  rendered  more  difficult  of  comprehension  to 
a  Westerner  by  the  confused  nature  of  that  belief,  and  is 
complicated  by  the  character  of  the  Chinese  of  mixing  all 
religions  together  regardless  of  their  natural  incongruity. 
It  is  hoped  that  the  reader  will  bear  this  in  mind  during  the 
following  explanation. 

The  religions  of  China  are  usually  classed  as  three.  Not 
three  well-marked  religions  in  our  sense  of  the  word,  but 
three  elements  which  tend  to  merge  into  a  common  re- 
ligion. These  are  separate  religions.  A  large  number  of 
Chinese,  for  instance,  are  Mohammedan,  and  they  neither 
marry  nor  are  given  in  marriage  to  the  other  Chinese; 
there  is  a  very  small  Jewish  community ;  and  there  is  also 
a  native  Greek  Christian  village  still  tolerated  by  the  Chi- 
nese, which  was  transplanted  from  Siberia  as  the  result  of  a 
Chinese  conquest  in  the  days  of  Peter  the  Great ;  there  are 
a  quarter  of  a  million  Christians  converted  by  non-Roman 
missions,  besides  a  million  belonging  to  the  Roman  Catho- 
lic Communion.  But  Christianity,  Judaism,  and  Moham- 
medanism put  all  together,  form  but  a  small  part  of  the 
Chinese  community,  and  the  greater  part  of  China  believes, 
according  to  all  orthodox  expositors,  in  three  religions — 
Buddhism,  Taoism,  and  what  is  termed  Confucianism. 

This  conglomerate  of  three  religions  consists  in  its  turn 
of  composite  faiths.  Buddhism  in  China  is  not  like  the 
Buddhism  of  Ceylon  with  its  agnostic  teaching.  Buddhism 
is  divided  into  two  great  divisions — the  "  greater  vehicle  " 
and  the  "  lesser  vehicle."  The  lesser  vehicle  is  known  to 


230  CHINA 

the  world  as  pure  Buddhism ;  the  greater  vehicle  contains 
many  sects,  all  of  which  claim  that  the  revelation  ex- 
tended to  Gautama  was  only  a  partial  revelation,  and  that 
the  truth  has  been  more  fully  revealed  to  those  who  suc- 
ceeded him.  This  is  called  Lamaism,  and  in  China  has  in- 
corporated much  of  the  idolatry  which  it  supplanted  and 
perhaps  some  of  the  Nestorian  Christianity  which  suc- 
ceeded it ;  in  fact,  the  Buddhist  temple  in  China  is  nothing 
more  than  an  idol  temple.  Buddha,  or  Gautama,  is  always 
the  principal  idolj  he  is  represented  calm  and  without 
thought  or  trouble ;  he  sits,  the  embodiment  of  peace  and 
rest ;  but  though  he  may  be  the  first  in  the  Buddhist  temple, 
he  is  far  from  being  alone  j  close  behind  him  in  popular 
estimation  come  two  other  deities,  Amita  and  Kwannin. 
Amita,  Amitobha,  or  O-mi-to,  is  held  by  some  to  be  the 
father  of  Kwannin,  and  is  at  once  a  guardian  of  the  West- 
ern Paradise  and  the  personification  of  purity ;  to  this 
wholly  mythical  personage  is  attributed  such  virtue  that  the 
mere  repetition  of  his  name  will  secure  salvation.  In 
Japan  a  sect  holds  that  every  Buddhist  law  can  be  broken 
with  immunity  as  long  as  there  is  faith  in  Amita.  In 
China  such  statements  are  made  as  this  :  to  follow  the  strict 
law  of  Buddhism  is  to  climb  to  heaven  as  a  fly  crawls  up 
the  wall,  but  to  attain  salvation  by  repeating  the  name 
O-mi-to  is  like  sailing  heavenwards  in  a  boat  with  wind 
and  tide  behind,  at  the  pace  of  a  hundred  li  an  hour. 

If  the  origin  of  this  deity  can  be  attributed  to  the  per- 
sonification  of  a  spirit  of  purity,  the  origin  of  the  next, 


RELIGIONS  IN  CHINA  231 

Kwannin,  is  probably  from  some  source  outside  Buddhism. 
She  is  the  goddess  of  mercy,  but  whatever  her  origin,  she 
at  present  represents  the  remnants  of  either  the  Nestorian 
or  the  mediaeval  Roman  teaching.  In  Peking  they  have  a 
curious  image  of  her  which  any  one  might  mistake  for  a 
Madonna,  the  truth  being  that  there  was  at  one  time  an 
intimate  contact  between  Christianity  and  Buddhism,  when 
many  of  the  externals  of  the  Christian  religion  and  some  of 
its  doctrines  were  transplanted.  The  Buddhist  temple  with 
its  altar  in  the  centre  looks  strangely  like  a  Christian 
church,  and  the  Buddhist  monks  and  nuns,  with  their 
rosaries  and  their  regular  hours  for  chanting  and  service,  re- 
call the  Roman  Catholic  services ;  the  picture  of  the  Bud- 
dhist hell  which  stands  in  the  great  Mongol  temple  at 
Peking  reminds  one  of  a  scene  from  Dante's  Inferno,  and 
among  the  many  things  the  Buddhists  borrow  from  Chris- 
tian sources  are  these  two  ideas,  embodied  in  two  idols,  the 
goddess  of  mercy  who  intercedes  for  mankind,  and  the  god 
of  faith  in  whom  the  worshipper  should  put  all  trust  and 
confidence.  Besides  these  gods  there  are  the  god  of  war 
and  the  god  of  good  fellowship,  probably  taken  from  old 
heathen  sources.  Again,  there  are  hundreds  of  Buddhas,  or 
as  we  should  call  them  "  saints,"  whose  position  is  some- 
where between  human  and  divine,  much  the  same  position 
that  the  saints  occupy  in  the  mind  of  a  Neapolitan  peasant. 
After  Buddhism  comes  Taoism.  Taoism  is  again  a 
conglomerate  faith.  Technically  it  is  the  faith  of  Laotze, 
who  was  an  opponent  and  a  contemporary  of  Confucius. 


232  CHINA 

He  taught  a  dualism  which  reminds  the  Westerner  of  the 
doctrine  of  the  Manichees.  Again,  Western  and  Eastern 
thought  have  been  confused  ;  Manichees  are  known  to  have 
existed  in  China,  and  whether  Manichaeism  originally  came 
from  the  East,  or  whether  subsequently  Chinese  thought 
has  been  affected  by  Manichasism  is  hard  to  decide.  At 
any  rate,  Laotze  did  not  claim  that  his  teaching  was 
original ;  he  was  merely  the  prophet  of  an  established  school 
of  thought.  The  greater  part  of  China  follows  his  rival 
and  despises  Laotze's  teaching,  yet  the  dualism  that  he 
taught  is  part  of  the  essential  faith  of  China,  and  a  part 
which  is  most  opposed  to  all  that  is  good.  He  taught  that 
good  and  evil  were  essentially  divided,  were  halves,  as  it 
were,  of  one  whole.  He  called  them  the  "  Yang  "  and  the 
"  Yin  " — terms  which  are  in  no  way  confined  to  the  few 
disciples  who  now  follow  him.  This  division  between  good 
and  evil  makes  up  the  mystery  of  the  world — light  and 
darkness,  heaven  and  earth,  male  and  female,  each  couple 
makes  up  one  whole  divided  between  good  and  evil;  and  so 
the  world  beyond  is  peopled  with  good  and  evil  spirits,  the 
"  Yang  "  and  the  "  Yin."  Obviously  such  a  faith  has  all 
the  evil  which  we  recognize  in  Manichzism,  and  its  prac- 
tical disadvantages  are  very  great.  For  instance  the  in- 
ferior position  of  women  is  defended  as  inevitable ;  they  are 
"  Yin."  No  mine  must  be  sunk  or  cutting  made  for  fear 
of  angering  the  earth  spirits,  for  as  man  is  as  essentially  a 
part  of  the  world  as  the  earth,  those  earth  spirits  will 
avenge  themselves  upon  him.  Taoism  has  now  but  few 


RELIGIONS  IN  CHINA  233 

adherents,  and  yet  there  are  many  Taoist  priests,  since  these 
priests  are  regarded  as  particularly  efficient  in  dealing  with 
the  evil  spirits  in  whom  Taoism  believes  so  fully. 

The  third  religion  is  generally  called  Confucianism,  and 
this  may  easily  lead  to  a  great  misunderstanding,  for  under 
the  term  Confucianism  two  very  different  things  are  in- 
cluded. First,  a  belief  in  the  philosophy  of  Confucius. 
This  for  the  most  part  is  outside  what  we  are  accustomed 
to  call  religion.  Secondly,  and  more  commonly,  the  spir- 
itual beliefs  of  those  who  call  themselves  Confucians,  and 
who,  owing  to  his  silence  on  religion,  have  to  find  other 
authorities  for  their  faith.  Sometimes  they  claim  that  their 
faith  was  the  same  as  the  faith  of  Confucius,  that  the  back- 
ground of  his  philosophy  was  the  religion  that  they  believe, 
but  more  commonly  they  accept  it  without  any  question. 
This  religion  is  commonly  mixed  up  both  with  Buddhism 
and  with  Taoism,  but  its  essential  doctrine  is  very  distinct 
and  has  great  weight  in  China,  namely  that  the  spirits  of 
men  who  are  dead  live  and  have  influence  over  the  lives  of 
their  descendants.  I  was  told  by  a  Chinese  Christian  that  a 
religious  Chinaman  of  the  lower  class  never  goes  out  with- 
out burning  a  stick  of  incense  to  the  tablet  of  his  father, 
and  no  one  can  go  through  Chinese  towns  without  being 
impressed  by  the  number  of  people  who  in  that  poor  coun- 
try are  kept  hard  at  work  manufacturing  mock  money  to  be 
burnt  for  the  use  of  parents  and  ancestors. 

The  missionaries  find  that  this  doctrine  is  the  hardest 
doctrine  for  Christianity  to  assail ;  and  there  are  not  a  few 


234  CHINA 

who,  despairing  of  success,  suggest  that  the  position  must 
be  turned  and  ancestor-worship  must  be  Christianized  and 
accepted  as  an  essential  part  of  a  man's  belief.  The  logical 
Western  mind  immediately  wants  to  know  what  is  behind 
the  ancestor ;  if  an  ancestor  is  to  have  power  he  can  only 
have  it,  says  the  logical  Westerner,  by  being  in  contact  with 
some  higher  power.  One  of  the  greatest  missionaries  that 
China  possesses  answers  this  difficulty  by  saying  that  the 
Chinese  mind  is  not  the  Western  mind  ;  that  he  does  not 
concern  himself  very  much  with  remote  speculation  ;  he 
has  not  that  itching  longing  to  use  the  word  "  why,"  which 
is  at  once  the  glory  and  the  difficulty  of  the  Western  mind, 
and  therefore  he  looks  at  the  spiritual  world  much  as  he 
looks  at  the  earthly  world ;  the  man  immediately  over  him 
in  the  town  is  the  magistrate,  and,  to  use  the  Chinese 
phrase,  "  is  the  father  and  mother  of  his  people,"  and  so 
over  him  in  spiritual  things  is  his  father  and  grandfather. 
Behind  the  magistrate  there  is  his  distant  thought,  the  pre- 
fect— the  head  of  the  prefecture  or  Fu  town — a  being  who 
only  comes  into  his  village  life  when  there  is  trouble  and 
difficulty ;  he  comes  to  punish,  rarely  to  reward,  and  so  be- 
hind his  father  and  grandfather  in  the  spiritual  world  are  the 
great  clan  leaders  whom  he  worships  at  regular  intervals 
with  the  rest  of  his  clan.  In  civil  government  there  are  in 
a  distant  background  a  Viceroy  with  awful  powers  and  aw- 
ful majesty,  and  an  Emperor  whose  very  name  is  so  divine 
that  he  scarcely  likes  to  use  it ;  and  behind  the  clan  leaders 
are  many  beings  borrowed  from  Buddhism,  relics  of  old 


RELIGIONS  IN  CHINA  235 

idolatry,  muddled  up  with  Taoism ;  and  in  the  dim  and  dis- 
tant background  is  the  Supreme  Being — the  Supreme  Being 
Who  rewards  the  just  and  punishes  the  unjust,  Who  can  in 
no  way  be  deceived,  Who  refuses  the  rain  to  the  sinner  and 
makes  the  land  desolate,  Who  has  power  to  dethrone  the 
earthly  Emperor  and  to  place  China  under  a  foreign 
domination.  This  great  and  awful  power  is,  however,  so 
far  distant  that  the  average  Chinaman  thinks  but  little 
about  Him. 

The  Temple  of  Heaven  at  Peking  is  the  beautiful  shrine 
of  this  Supreme  Being.  Here  once  a  year,  after  spending 
a  night  fasting,  the  Emperor,  as  the  father  of  his  nation, 
worships  the  great  God  who  made  heaven  and  earth.  The 
chief  feature  of  this  worship  is  that  it  is  performed  in  the 
open  air  on  a  beautiful  marble  dais.  No  place  in  China  is 
quite  so  lovely ;  it  is  the  fitting  shrine  of  the  beautiful  faith 
of  China's  most  glorious  days,  a  faith  which  though  dor- 
mant is  not  dead.  The  traveller  who  stands  there  should 
remember  that  the  worship  which  is  here  performed  is  as 
old  as  the  date  of  the  patriarchs  and  not  un-akin  to  their 
religious  ideals;  and  if  there  are  some  things  which  are 
not  sympathetic  to  the  Christian  idea,  they  are  subordinate. 
In  the  main  it  is  the  worship  of  the  One  True  Being. 

This  faith  has  no  right  to  be  called  Confucian.  There 
is  great  doubt  about  the  faith  of  Confucius.  He  is  silent 
about  religion,  or  he  refers  to  it  only  indirectly  ;  it  is  no 
part  of  his  teaching ;  but  his  indirect  references  to  it  ap- 
parently express  a  belief  in  a  Supreme  Being  whom  he  calls 


236  CHINA 

41  Heaven,"  a  Supreme  Being  who  has  an  influence  on 
human  affairs.  He  also  recognizes  ancestor-worship,  but 
with  such  a  dubious  phrase  that  many  Chinese  and  Eng- 
lish scholars  have  doubted  his  meaning.  Neither  is  this  the 
leading  faith  of  all  the  leading  Confucianists  in  China, 
many  of  whom  are  professedly  agnostics  in  matters  of 
religion,  and  follow  the  teaching  of  Chu ;  but  it  is  the  faith, 
the  ill-understood  faith,  of  the  great  multitude  of  thinking 
and  non-thinking  Chinamen,  and  it  is  looked  upon  as  the 
State  religion  of  China.  Its  power  over  China  is  universal 
and  yet  insecure. 

Many  ages  ago  it  was  partly  defeated  by  the  more 
logical  and  more  sympathetic  faith  of  Buddhism.  The 
fight  was  bitter,  the  persecutions  cruel,  but  Buddhism  con- 
quered. Now  Buddhism  fails.  With  its  failure  a  vast 
mass  of  superstition,  kept  alive  by  the  sacrifice  to  the  an- 
cestor, once  more  rises  up  and  stands  right  in  the  path  of 
progress — right  in  the  way  of  civilization.  It  was  super- 
stition that  moved  the  Boxer,  and  this  it  was  that  lost  credit 
when  Boxerdom  failed.  Story  after  story  is  told  of  the 
influence  of  this  incoherent  but  vital  mass  of  religion. 
The  junk  will  dart  across  the  bows  of  your  steamer  j  there 
will  be  much  whistling,  reversing  of  engines,  peremptory 
commands  in  English,  abuse  in  Chinese ;  and  when  you 
inquire  why  the  lowdah  '  of  the  junk  risked  his  cargo,  per- 
haps his  life,  and  put  the  steamer  and  its  passengers  in  a 
state  of  excitement,  if  not  in  jeopardy,  the  answer  is  that 
» Captain. 


RELIGIONS  IN  CHINA  237 

every  junk  lowdah  is  afraid  of  the  evil  spirit  that  is  follow- 
ing him,  and  if  he  crosses  the  steamer's  bow  he  expects 
that  the  evil  spirit,  seeing  a  more  worthy  quarry,  will  neg- 
lect him  and  follow  the  steamer.  The  head  of  the  Shang- 
hai Telephone  Company  tells  how  he  is  not  uncommonly 
met  by  some  sleek  well-to-do  Chinaman  who  is  most  dis- 
tressed because  the  shadow  of  a  telephone  pole  falls  over 
his  door,  so  that  as  he  goes  out  he  passes  beneath  it,  and 
that  will  bring  bad  luck.  The  houses  in  China  stand  un- 
conformably  with  the  road,  because  a  certain  aspect  is 
lucky;  a  cracker  is  exploded  to  frighten  the  evil  spirits 
away,  and  so  on  through  tales  innumerable. 

The  world  around  is  full  of  evil  spirits  to  the  Chinaman. 
Every  village  has  the  witch  doctor  who  is  learned  in  the 
ways  of  these  evil  spirits.  Diabolical  possession  is  as  pres- 
ent with  them  as  ever  it  was  in  Bible  times.  Your  hard- 
headed  commercial  man  smiles  when  he  relates  these  stories, 
incredulous  that  there  can  be  any  foundation  for  them ;  but 
those  who  have  dwelt  among  the  Chinese  take  much  the 
same  line  about  these  stories  as  we  do  about  spiritualism. 
Much  is  folly,  more  is  fraud ;  but  behind  both  the  folly  and 
the  fraud  there  is  a  mysterious  reality.  The  faith  of  the 
masses  of  China  in  the  spiritual  world  has  never  been  en- 
couraged by  its  philosophers.  It  owes  its  vitality  to  the 
fact  that,  as  with  us,  so  with  them,  manifestations  of  powers 
beyond  this  world  are  real  if  ill-comprehended,  and  con- 
nected too  often  with  man's  evil  side. 


ANCESTOR  WORSHIP 

R.  S.  GUNDRT 

WHETHER  because  mere  oppositeness  of  thought 
and  custom  seem  necessarily  quaint,  or  whether, 
as  Dr.  Edkins  *  has  suggested,  because  Sir  John 
Mandeville  and  Marco  Polo  told  such  wonderful  things  that 
their  readers  did  not  feel  sure  whether  they  were  dealing  in 
fact  or  fiction,  Europeans  have  always  been  prone  to  see 
only  a  ludicrous  side  of  Chinese  life.  And  in  no  respect  is 
this  more  true  than  in  regard  to  religion.  We  hear  a  great 
deal  about  Buddhism  and  Taoism  and  temples  and  idols 
and  superstition :  we  note  with  amusement  that  a  certain 
god  has  been  dragged  forth  from  his  cool  sanctuary  in  order 
that  he  may  be  brought  to  realize  in  the  blazing  sunshine 
the  crying  need  of  rain  j  but  we  hear  very  little  about  the 
one  cult  which  has  deep  root  in  the  national  life.  It  is  not 
his  affection  for  Buddhism  which  offers  the  chief  obstacle 
to  a  Chinaman's  acceptance  of  Christianity.  It  is  when  he 
is  asked  to  abandon  the  Worship  of  Ancestors  that  what 
may  be  called  the  great  religious  instinct  of  his  soul  is 
wounded  and  scandalized ;  yet  this  has,  for  two  hundred 
years,  been  a  cardinal  requirement  of  the  Christian  propa- 
ganda. 

1  Religion  in  China. 


ANCESTOR  WORSHIP  239 

One  is  struck,  at  the  outset,  by  the  resemblance  in  many 
respects  between  the  Chinese  practice  and  the  correspond- 
ing observances  in  the  days  of  ancient  Rome.  Substituting 
tablets  for  images  we  seem,  in  fact,  to  find  ourselves  in  the 
presence  of  the  rites  in  the  Lararium  which  have  been  taken 
to  be  the  precursors  of  our  own  family  prayer.  Every  Chi- 
nese household  has  somewhere  within  its  doors  an  ancestral 
hall,  a  shrine  in  which  are  deposited  the  tablets  of  deceased 
ancestors;  it  may  be  a  separate  building  or  it  may  be  a 
mere  shelf;  that  is  a  detail  of  circumstance  and  pecuniary 
resource.  Every  clan  also  has  its  ancestral  temple,  which 
forms  a  rallying  point  for  its  members,  who  come  often 
from  great  distances  to  join  in  the  spring  or  autumn  cere- 
monies ;  and  there,  as  in  the  household  shrines,  representa- 
tive tablets  are  set  up.  These  tablets  are  slips  of  wood  of 
varying  size  in  different  provinces,  but  approximately  about 
one  foot  high  and  three  inches  wide,  placed  upright  on  a 
pedestal  and  having  inscribed  on  either  side  the  name,  rank, 
age,  dates  of  birth  and  death  and  other  particulars  of  the 
person  it  is  intended  to  commemorate.  They  may  remind 
us,  so  far,  of  a  tombstone  kept  at  home  instead  of  being 
placed  on  the  grave. 

But  that  is  not  all.  Besides  the  record,  each  tablet  has 
also  inscribed  on  it  four  characters :  sben  chu,  meaning 
"  spirit  lord,"  and  sben  wei,  meaning  "  spirit  throne,"  and 
it  is  now  that  we  enter  the  arena  of  theological  controversy. 
The  characters  chu  and  zf«',  when  first  written,  are  left  in- 
complete in  a  peculiar  respect :  they  lack  each  a  dot ;  and 


240  CHINA 

the  imposition  of  these  dots  involves  an  elaborate  cere- 
monial. The  rite  occurs  during  the  funeral  obsequies,  of 
which  it  forms  an  important  feature.  A  mandarin  of  the 
highest  rank  available,  or  a  simple  literate — according  to 
the  social  status  of  the  family — is  asked  to  officiate  ;  the 
idea  being,  apparently,  that  he  comes  as  a  representative  of 
the  Emperor  who  stands  at  the  head  of  the  national  cult. 

"  Along  with  this  chief  personage,  four  others  of  lesser  grade  are 
also  invited  to  be  present  and  assist  in  the  ceremony.  The  time 
having  arrived  for  dotting  the  tablet,  the  five  take  their  places,  one 
at  the  head,  two  on  either  side  of  the  table  on  which  the  tablet  is 
lying.  The  master  of  the  ceremonies  cries  out  :  '  Hand  up  the 
vermilion  pencil ; '  whereupon  one  of  the  subordinate  [celebrants] 
hands  up  the  pencil  to  his  chief.  The  master  of  the  ceremonies 
next  says,  'May  it  please  our  distinguished  guest  to  turn  towards 
the  East  and  receive  the  breath  of  life  ;  '  whereupon  the  chief  cele- 
brant turns  towards  the  East  and  emits  a  slight  breath  upon  the  tip 
of  the  pencil.  The  master  of  the  ceremonies  next  cries,  '  Impose 
the  red  dot ;  '  whereupon  the  chief  mandarin,  first  bowing  to  his 
four  coadjutors  as  though  unworthy  to  perform  the  act,  imposes  the 
missing  dots,  first  on  the  character  c hu  and  then  on  the  character 
tvei.  These  dots  are  then  covered  with  black  ink  by  the  same  per- 
son and  with  the  same  ceremonies  and  the  consecration  is  com- 
plete."— Blodget. 

"  There  is,"  we  are  told,  in  all  this,  "  a  kind  of  incor- 
poration of  the  spirit  in  the  tablet  as  its  visible  home,  where 
it  receives  offerings  and  prayers  and  manifests  its  good  will 
or  disapprobation."  And  now  begins  the  homage  which, 
although  it  is  not  image-worship,  is  condemned  by  its  critics 
as  idolatrous. 


ANCESTOR  WORSHIP  241 

"  The  chief  mourner  (properly  the  eldest  son),  after  this,  takes 
the  tablet  from  one  of  the  attendant  magistrates  and  sets  it  upright 
on  a  small  table  in  front  of  the  coffin.  The  magistrate  who  has 
imposed  the  dots  then  comes  forward  with  his  four  associates,  and, 
all  kneeling  on  a  mat  before  the  tablet,  pours  out  three  chalices  of 
wine  as  a  libation,  after  which  the  five  prostrate  themselves  three 
times  before  the  tablet.  Then  all  retire,  their  duty  being  accom- 
plished. 

"  The  tablet  thus  consecrated  is  carried  out  the  next  day  to  the 
cemetery  upon  a  pavilion  adorned  with  hangings  of  silk,  its  place 
in  the  funeral  procession  being  some  distance  in  front  of  the  cata- 
falque. At  evening  it  is  returned  to  the  house  of  the  eldest  son, 
where  incense  is  burned  before  it  morning  and  evening,  and  offer- 
ings are  made  during  the  three  years  of  mourning.  When  these 
are  finished  it  is  transferred  to  the  ancestral  hall  to  be  worshipped 
with  the  other  tablets  of  the  clan  [on  certain  prescribed  dates  and 
festivals,  among  which  one  called  '  Ching-ming  '  in  April  and  an- 
other in  August  are  the  most  important]." — Blodget. 

The  ritual  seems  to  involve  three  essentials :  the  posture, 
the  invocation  and  the  offerings.  The  posture  is  that  of 
kneeling  alternating  with  prostrations.  But  that  is  pre- 
cisely what  a  child  does  before  its  parents,  an  inferior  be- 
fore a  great  official,  the  official  himself  before  the  Emperor  ; 
and  so  the  question  at  once  suggests  itself  whether  a  China- 
man thinks  that  he  "  worships  "  his  living  parents.  Dishes 
containing  food  are  spread  out  before  the  tablets ;  but  the 
underlying  idea  is  unquestionably  that  of  a  banquet.  The 
definition  of  Confucius  is  "  serving  the  dead  as  they  would 
have  been  served  when  alive ; "  and  clothing  and  money 
are  usually  added  in  pursuance  of  this  idea.  When  the 
Emperor  offers  a  similar  sacrifice  to  the  Supreme  Spirit  of 


242  CHINA 

Heaven,  he  invites  his  ancestors  to  be  present  at  the  ban- 
quet by  placing  their  tablets  on  the  altar.  Births  and  be- 
trothals are  notified  to  ancestors  very  much  as  they  are 
notified  to  living  kindred.  The  Emperor  notifies  his  an- 
cestors of  his  own  accession.  In  the  marriage  ceremony 
the  bridegroom  presents  his  wife  to  his  ancestors,  as  a  new 
member  of  the  family,  to  invoke  their  paternal  blessing. 

That  words  of  supplication  are  often  used  in  the  course 
of  popular  ritual  is  an  admitted  fact,  though  they  are  al- 
leged to  be  of  secondary  importance  and  are  even  omitted 
altogether  from  some  breviaries.  There  are  such,  for  in- 
stance, in  the  following,  which  is  said  to  be  a  common 
form : 

"I  .  .  .  presume  to  come  before  the  grave  of  my  ances- 
tors. Revolving  years  have  brought  again  the  season  of  spring. 
Cherishing  sentiments  of  veneration  I  look  up  and  sweep  your 
tomb.  Prostrate  I  pray  that  you  will  come  and  be  present,  and 
that  you  will  grant  to  your  posterity  that  they  may  be  prosperous 
and  illustrious.  At  this  season  of  genial  showers  and  genial  breezes 
I  desire  to  recompense  the  root  of  my  existence,  and  exert  myself 
sincerely.  Always  grant  your  safe  protection.  My  trust  is  in 
your  divine  spirit.  Reverently  I  present  the  five-fold  sacrifice  of  a 
pig,  a  fowl,  a  duck,  a  goose,  and  a  fish  ;  also  an  offering  of  five 
plates  of  fruit  with  libations  of  spirituous  liquors,  earnestly  entreat- 
ing that  you  will  come  and  view  them.  With  the  most  attentive 
respect  this  annunciation  is  presented  on  high." 

This  prayer  it  will  be  noted  is  offered  at  the  tomb.  For, 
besides  the  ceremonies  in  the  Ancestral  Hall,  periodical 
rites  are  performed  also  at  the  grave.  In  spring  and 


ANCESTOR  WORSHIP  243 

autumn,  families  are  wont  to  choose  a  day  for  visiting  the 
resting-places  of  their  dead,  carrying  food  and  wine  for 
offerings  and  libations,  imitation  clothes  and  money,  candles 
and  incense.  First  clearing  away  the  grass  and  covering 
the  tombs  with  a  layer  of  fresh  earth,  they  present  their 
offerings,  and  perform  various  ceremonies  much  as  before 
the  tablet.  A  table  is  spread,  a  paper  imitating  the  tablet 
is  put  thereon,  candles  are  lighted,  incense  is  burned,  dishes 
of  various  kinds  are  set  in  order,  and  the  chief  mourner 
presents  the  whole,  for  his  ancestor's  acceptance,  in  the 
terms  and  with  the  ceremonial  that  have  been  described. 

"  Est  honor  et  tumults.     Animas  placate  paternas, 
Parvaque  in  extinctas  munera  ferte  pyras." 

Do  we  not  almost  seem  in  the  presence  of  the  Feralia  of 
Rome  ? 

This  is  the  reason  why  the  Chinese  are  so  anxious  for 
male  children.  It  is  a  son  who  officiates — the  eldest  son 
of  the  family  in  the  household,  the  eldest  son  of  the  senior 
family  in  the  case  of  the  Ancestral  Hall.  At  an  important 
function  which  the  Rev.  Justus  Doolittle  describes  at 
Foochow,  the  chief  person  "  was  a  lad  some  six  or  eight 
years  old,  he  being  the  eldest  son  of  the  eldest  son,  etc., 
of  the  remote  male  ancestors  from  whom  all  the  Chinese 
bearing  his  ancestral  name  living  in  the  city  claim  to  have 
descended.  He  was  the  chief  of  the  clan." 

The  presumption  that  the  happiness  of  the  living  de- 
pends on  sacrifices  from  their  living  descendants,  with  its 


244  CHINA 

corollary  that  neglected  souls  turn  into  hungry  ghosts,  is 
akin  to  that  expressed  by  Palinurus  in  begging  ./Eneas  to 
accord  his  body  funeral  rites,  and  is  one  of  the  grounds 
alleged  for  condemning  the  cult.  There  is  at  Hangchow, 
for  instance,  a  large  temple  erected  for  the  benefit  of 
"  ancestors  "  whose  descendants  have  all  died.  Here  their 
tablets  are  collected  and  here  the  necessary  offerings  are 
made  and  the  usual  ceremonies  gone  through,  by  a  proper 
attendant,  at  the  spring  and  autumn  festivals. 

Such,  in  bare  outline,  is  the  Chinese  worship  of  ancestors ; 
and  surely  the  churches  which  have  refined  the  Feralia  up 
to  a  pilgrimage  to  Pere  Lachaise,  the  Lemuralia  up  to  a 
general  Mass  for  the  Dead  and  have  whittled  the  observ- 
ances of  Hallowe'en  down  to  an  occasional  bonfire  and  a 
collect  for  All  Saints,  might  trust  themselves  to  deal  ten- 
derly with  a  cult  which  lies  at  the  root  of  Chinese  polity 
and  which  even  those  who  condemn  it  admit  to  have  been 
a  powerful  agent  for  good,  from  the  earliest  ages  to  which 
its  existence  and  operation  can  be  traced.  Laymen  may, 
indeed,  find  it  difficult  to  perceive  how  ceremonies  which 
they  will  probably  regard  as  the  expression  of  a  touching 
and  beautiful  sentiment  can  have  incurred  such  sweeping 
condemnation. 


ETIQUETTE  AND  CEREMONY 

CHESTER  HOLCOMBE 

AMONG  the  Chinese,  etiquette  may  almost  be  said 
to  take  precedence  of  morality  in  importance.  So 
far  as  rigid  adherence  to  outward  forms  may  go, 
as  a  nation  they  excel  all  others  in  the  art  of  politeness. 
It  is  true  that  much  of  it  has  degenerated  into  mere  man- 
nerism. Still,  the  form  survives,  and  makes  up  by  the 
minuteness  of  detail  and  the  rigidity  of  exaction  what  it 
lacks  in  spirit.  The  observance  of  these  forms  is  practi- 
cally universal.  Cart-drivers  on  the  streets,  ragged  and  foul 
beggars  by  the  roadside,  country  rustics  and  city  fops — all 
alike  practice  and  exact  compliance  with  them.  One  may 
call  a  Chinese  a  liar,  and,  under  many  circumstances,  he 
will  accept  the  epithet  as  a  well-deserved  compliment ;  but 
either  accuse  him  of  a  breach  of  etiquette  or  neglect  any 
of  the  proper  forms  of  speech  due  to  him,  and  a  quarrel 
will  be  the  immediate  result. 

As  might  be  expected  in  such  an  ancient  country  as 
China,  the  system  of  etiquette  is  not  only  thoroughly 
crystallized  and  fixed,  it  is  also  very  complicated  and  tedi- 
ous in  its  forms.  It  enters  into  the  most  minute  detail  of 
action  and  speech.  To  a  large  extent  it  deprives  conver- 
sation of  all  freshness  and  originality  by  dictating  a  set  form 


246  CHINA 

through  which  it  may  flow,  and  so  covers  simple  questions 
between  friends  with  a  varnish  or  lacquer  of  extravagant 
adjectives  and  bombastic  nouns,  with  fulsome  compliment 
and  intense  but  meaningless  self-depreciation,  as  to  render 
it  absurd  and  silly.  Take,  for  example,  the  following  short 
dialogue,  which  is  an  exact  translation  of  the  invariable 
conversation  which  occurs  between  two  gentlemen,  or 
beggars  for  that  matter,  who  meet  for  the  first  time : 

"  What  is  your  honourable  cognomen  ?  " 

"  The  trifling  name  of  your  little  brother  is  Wang." 

u  What  is  your  exalted  longevity  ?  " 

"  Very  small.     Only  a  miserable  seventy  years." 

u  Where  is  your  noble  mansion  ?  " 

"  The  mud  hovel  in  which  I  hide  is  in  such  or  such  a 
place." 

"  How  many  precious  parcels  [sons]  have  you  ? " 

"  Only  so  many  stupid  little  pigs." 

Of  course  in  such  a  dialogue  the  various  facts  sought,  all 
very  simple,  are  given  correctly  ;  but  the  formula  of  each 
question  must  be  carefully  preserved  in  this  stilted  fashion, 
and  to  omit  a  single  flattering  or  depreciatory  word  would 
be  noted  as  a  breach  of  politeness,  and  hence  as  offensive. 
It  is  true  that  the  spirit  underlying  such  a  conversation — 
that  of  deference — is  good.  It  is  that  which  leads  each  to 
prefer  the  other  to  himself;  but  there  is  reason  to  believe 
that  the  spirit  is  gone  from  it,  and  that  it  is  a  mere  shell  of 
language,  a  form  of  words.  Were  this  not  the  case,  by 
such  gross  exaggeration  it  is  made  ridiculous  and  inane. 


ETIQUETTE  AND  CEREMONY         247 

Among  equals  in  China  it  is  a  gross  breach  of  politeness 
to  call  a  person  by  his  given  name.  There  are  no  ex- 
ceptions to  this  rule.  Between  the  closest  friends  or  the 
nearest  relatives  the  rule  holds  good.  A  Chinese  would  be 
angry  if  his  twin  brother  addressed  him  in  that  manner. 
It  must  either  be  "  Venerable  elder  brother  "  or  "  Vener- 
able younger  brother,"  as  the  facts  warrant,  and  sons  of 
the  same  mother  have  more  than  once  been  known  to  fall 
instantly  to  blows  for  no  other  reason  than  violation  of  this 
rule.  They  have  a  curious  way  of  distinguishing  the 
various  sons  in  a  family  by  numbers.  Thus  the  eldest 
son  of  Mr.  Jones  would  be  called  "  Big  Jones ; "  the 
second,  "  Jones  number  2  ; "  the  third,  "  Jones  number 
3."  Persons  of  equal  rank  or  station,  outside  the  family, 
may  either  address  them  by  the  titles  mentioned  above,  or 
as  "  Venerable  Big  Jones  "  or  "  Venerable  Jones  number 
2,"  as  the  case  may  be.  This  is  esteemed  quite  the  correct 
thing ;  but  to  address  either  of  them  by  the  family  and 
given  name  would  certainly  give  offense. 

On  the  other  hand,  their  superiors  are  expected,  or  at 
least  are  at  liberty  to  use  the  given  name,  and  are  esteemed 
ignorant  or  boorish  if  they  use  the  same  form  of  address 
that  their  equals  would  employ ;  and  this  fact  furnishes  the 
explanation  to  the  peculiar  etiquette  mentioned  above. 
The  use  of  the  given  name  is  an  offensive  assumption  of 
superiority.  These  minute  discriminations,  endless  in 
number,  often  cause  foreign  residents  to  make  absurd 
blunders  in  addressing  their  Chinese  servants.  One  gen- 


248  CHINA 

tleman  brought  upon  himself  the  ridicule  of  all  the  natives 
about  him  by  invariably  calling  his  porter  by  the  title 
<l  Venerable  elder  brother."  Knowing  not  a  word  of  the 
language,  and  hearing  other  servants  address  the  man  by 
that  title,  he  had,  very  naturally,  concluded  that  it  was  his 
name. 

Generally  speaking,  questions  of  etiquette  have  played  a 
far  more  important  part  in  the  foreign  relations  of  China, 
have  produced  more  friction  and  misunderstanding  than  can 
readily  be  conceived.  Chinese  officials  are  exceedingly 
tenacious  of  their  dignity.  They  have  a  minute  and  exact 
line  of  ceremony  of  intercourse  among  their  own  officials  of 
varying  ranks,  and  they  strongly  object,  and  perhaps 
naturally,  to  the  payment  of  higher  honours  to  a  foreign 
official  than  would  be  conceded  to  a  native  of  the  same  or 
corresponding  rank.  Thus,  by  way  of  illustration,  the 
main  entrance  to  every  government  office  in  China  is  pro- 
vided with  three  doors :  a  central  large  door  of  two  leaves 
and  a  smaller  one  of  a  single  leaf  on  either  side.  It  is  a 
fixed  rule  among  native  officials  that  the  great  central  door 
can  only  be  opened  for  the  passage  of  a  person  equal  in 
rank  with  the  head  of  the  office.  The  consular  representa- 
tives at  Canton  for  many  years  had  no  interviews  with  the 
viceroy  there  because  he  declined  to  open  the  central  door 
to  his  palace,  and  they  declined  to  enter  at  either  side  door. 
Confessedly  they  were  far  below  him  in  personal  rank,  but 
they  insisted  that  it  would  be  an  affront  to  the  dignity  of 
the  governments  which  they  represented  if  they  entered  by 


ETIQUETTE  AND  CEREMONY         249 

any  other  than  the  great  door.  The  question  developed 
much  vexatious  diplomatic  discussion,  interfered  for  years 
with  the  transaction  of  business,  but  was  finally  disposed  of 
by  the  concession  of  the  point  by  the  viceroy. 

In  a  similar  way  the  question  of  audience,  about  which 
so  much  has  been  written,  and  which  was  finally  settled  in 
1873,  after  a  discussion  carried  on  almost  daily  for  six 
months,  was  not  a  question  of  seeing  or  not  seeing  the 
Emperor.  It  was  purely  a  question  of  ceremony.  The 
Chinese  never  raised  an  objection  to  the  interview,  but  they 
insisted  that  it  should  take  place  in  accordance  with  the 
native  ritual.  From  time  immemorial,  whenever  a  high 
officer  of  State,  not  excepting  princes  of  the  imperial 
lineage,  have  audience  with  the  Emperor,  they  are  required 
to  perform  what  is  known  in  the  "  Code  of  Etiquette  "  as 
the  "  three  prostrations  and  nine  knockings,"  commonly 
called  the  "ketow."  It  consists  in  going  upon  the  hands 
and  knees  three  times,  and  each  time  knocking  the  forehead 
upon  the  floor  three  times.  Not  a  very  dignified  or  elegant 
ceremony,  it  must  be  confessed.  The  foreign  representa- 
tives rightly  refused  to  submit  to  this  requirement  of 
Chinese  etiquette,  upon  the  ground  that  it  was  alike  de- 
grading and  unbecoming,  since  they  were  the  official  rep- 
resentatives of  governments  equal  in  rank  and  position 
with  that  of  China,  and  also  because  it  required  of  them  the 
performance  of  an  act  to  which  they  had  never  been  asked 
to  submit  when  presented  to  the  rulers  of  their  native  lands. 
They  would  not  render  a  greater  act  of  subjection  to  a 


250  CHINA 

foreign  ruler  than  they  had  ever  granted  to  their  own.  The 
Chinese  insisted  upon  the  "  ketow  "  for  nearly  six  months, 
and  only  yielded  upon  being  shown,  by  the  American  Min- 
ister, instructions  directing  him,  in  case  the  Chinese  per- 
sisted, to  break  off  relations  and  await  further  instructions, 
u  which  would  be  in  accordance  with  the  gravity  of  the 
situation."  Then  His  Imperial  Majesty  gracefully  yielded 
the  point,  and  contented  himself  with  the  receipt  of  three 
profound  bows.  Two  other  minor  points  caused  some  dis- 
cussion. The  Chinese  objected  to  the  sword  which  forms 
an  ornamental  but  useless  part  of  every  diplomatic  uniform, 
since  it  is  a  most  serious  breach  of  propriety  for  a  person 
bearing  a  weapon  of  any  sort  to  enter  the  imperial  presence. 
They  also  successfully  attacked  one  of  the  representatives, 
who  was  practically  blind  when  deprived  of  his  eye-glasses. 
They  appealed  to  his  well-known  good  nature,  and  begged 
him  to  leave  his  spectacles  at  home,  since  it  was  grossly  im- 
proper, from  a  Chinese  standpoint,  for  any  person  to  appear 
before  the  Emperor  wearing  them.  He  consented,  and 
only  found  his  way  into  the  audience  chamber  by  clinging 
to  the  arm  of  a  colleague. 

The  etiquette  surrounding  the  receipt  and  consumption  of 
a  cup  of  tea,  simple  as  it  may  appear,  has  caused  more  than 
one  foreigner  to  stumble,  and,  in  one  instance  at  least,  pro- 
duced vexatious  results.  An  American  gentleman  had  oc- 
casion to  call  upon  a  Chinese  official  about  a  matter  of  busi- 
ness, when  it  was  very  desirable  that  a  good  impression 
should  be  made.  He  was  received  with  the  most  formal 


ETIQUETTE  AND  CEREMONY         251 

and  ceremonious  courtesy.  Tea  was  brought  in  at  once  by 
a  servant,  and  the  official,  taking  a  cup  in  both  hands, 
raised  it  to  his  head,  and  then  presented  it  in  a  most  defer- 
ential manner  to  the  foreigner.  The  Chinese  host  then 
seated  himself,  and  a  second  cup  was  placed  before  him  by 
the  attendant.  The  guest,  being  thirsty  after  a  long  and 
dusty  ride,  seized  his  cup  and  swallowed  the  contents  at  a 
single  draught.  The  manner  of  the  Chinese  official  changed 
instantly,  and  from  being  most  scrupulously  polite  and 
courteous,  he  became  rude  and  insolent,  would  hear  nothing 
about  the  business  in  hand,  and  the  foreigner  was  sent  out 
of  his  office  almost  as  though  he  were  a  servant. 

The  guest  had  been  guilty  of  two  breaches  of  etiquette, 
both  trivial  in  Western  eyes,  yet  serious  from  a  Chinese 
standpoint.  In  the  first  place,  he  should  have  received  the 
cup  of  tea  standing,  when  brought  to  him  by  his  host. 
What  was  far  more  important,  he  should  not  have  touched 
his  tea,  no  matter  how  thirsty  he  might  have  been,  until  his 
host  urged  him  to  do  so  and  set  him  the  example,  and  he 
should  have  made  that  the  signal  of  his  departure.  This 
part  of  the  etiquette  of  tea-drinking  is  peculiar.  Had  the 
caller  been  equal  or  superior  in  rank  to  the  host,  he  might 
have  quenched  his  thirst  whenever  he  saw  fit ;  but  being  in- 
ferior to  him,  he  was  at  liberty,  according  to  Chinese  rule, 
only  to  follow  the  motions  of  the  host,  who,  on  his  part, 
would  touch  the  tea  when  he  wished  the  interview  to  end. 

The  official  had  never  before  met  a  foreigner,  and  hence 
was  peculiarly  on  the  watch  to  discover  whether,  from  the 


252  CHINA 

Chinese  point  of  view,  he  was  a  gentleman.  The  episode 
of  the  tea  proved  that  he  was  not,  and  in  consequence  his 
visit  was  resented  as  an  unwarranted  and  inexcusable  intru- 
sion. 

It  is  impossible  to  overestimate  the  importance  which  the 
Chinese,  of  all  ranks  and  classes,  attach  to  these  trifling  de- 
tails of  etiquette,  which  indeed  they  consider  as  being  es- 
sential parts  of  propriety  of  demeanour.  It  is  easy  to  ignore 
them,  but  unwise  if  a  person  wishes  to  stand  well  with 
these  Orientals,  and  doubly  so  if  he  desires  to  transact  any 
important  business  with  them.  They  measure  the  quality 
of  a  man  by  these  apparently  minute  and  trifling  standards. 
They  are  taught  to  every  schoolboy,  are  as  old  as  the 
nation,  and  as  fixed  as  the  hills.  We  may  laugh  at  them, 
find  them  tedious  and  absurd,  as,  indeed,  many  of  them  are ; 
yet  they  are  an  inherent  part  of  the  nation,  and  conformity 
to  them,  except  in  such  as  involve  undignified  or  degrading 
acts,  is  essential  to  good-fellowship  with  the  Chinese  and  to 
the  successful  accomplishment  of  any  business  to  which 
they  are  parties.  A  volume  might  be  written  dedicated  ex- 
clusively to  illustrations  of  the  evil  results  which  have  come 
from  ignorant  or  willful  violation  of  these  rules  of  propriety, 
which,  as  has  been  said,  are  esteemed  of  equal  or  superior 
authority  to  the  code  of  morals. 

Whenever  two  Chinese  acquaintances,  either  riding  on 
horseback,  being  driven  in  carts,  or  carried  in  chairs,  meet, 
each  is  expected  to  dismount  and  make  his  salutations  to 
the  other.  Each  must  hasten  to  be  first  upon  the  ground, 


ETIQUETTE  AND  CEREMONY         253 

each  must  urge  the  other  not  to  alight,  and  each  must  in- 
sist that  the  other  shall  be  the  first  to  remount.  And  they 
do  all  this  with  the  greatest  apparent  eagerness  and  sin- 
cerity ;  yet  it  is  only  rigmarole  and  play-acting.  Each 
knows  which  should  descend  and  which  remount  first,  and 
woe  betide  the  other  if  he  yields  to  his  friend's  show  of  en- 
treaty, and  either  fails  to  dismount  first,  or  returns  to  his 
carriage  while  his  superior  in  years  or  station  is  standing  in 
the  street.  His  acquaintances  would  fail  to  recognize  him, 
and  his  reputation  as  a  gentleman  would  be  gone  forever. 

Yet  there  is  much  human  nature  left  in  the  cultivated 
Chinese,  and  with  them,  while  a  tedious  or  inconvenient 
rule  of  polite  conduct  is  never  openly  ignored  or  violated, 
it  is  almost  uniformly  evaded ;  and  the  direct  result  of  this 
cumbersome  ceremonial  is  that  Chinese  gentlemen,  who 
never  walk,  always  fail  to  see  their  friends  upon  the  street. 
If  in  carts  or  chairs,  the  curtains  are  closely  drawn ;  if  on 
horseback,  they  are  always  looking  in  another  direction.  I 
have  known  a  Chinese  official  to  bow  most  politely  to  me 
as  we  met,  and  at  the  same  moment  to  fail  to  recognize  an 
Oriental  friend  and  associate,  whom  he  had  met  almost 
daily  for  forty  years.  They  were  close  friends ;  but  while 
he  was  at  liberty  to  follow  the  foreign  style  of  recognition 
with  me,  he  was  bound  by  another  and  more  laborious  code 
of  etiquette  regarding  the  other.  Hence  the  difference  in 
his  conduct  towards  us. 

There  is  the  same  tedious  and  absurd  formula  to  be  ob- 
served whenever  several  persons  enter  or  leave  a  room  to- 


254  CHINA 

gather,  or  seat  themselves  at  table.  Each  knows  perfectly 
his  own  place,  fixed  by  his  rank  relative  to  the  others,  and 
hence  he  knows  which  will  finally  enter  or  leave  the  room 
first,  have  the  higher  seat  at  the  table,  and  take  and  leave 
that  first.  The  rule  is  absolute  and  universally  understood, 
and  no  deviation  from  it  would  be  tolerated ;  yet  each  one 
crowds  back  and  urges  another  to  take  the  precedence,  and 
the  friendly  struggle  must  last  for  several  minutes  before 
the  various  members  of  the  party  accept  their  proper  places. 

Much  of  the  falsehood  to  which  the  Chinese  as  a  nation 
are  said  to  be  addicted  is  a  result  of  the  demands  of  eti- 
quette. A  plain,  frank  "  no  "  is  the  height  of  discourtesy. 
Refusal  or  denial  of  any  sort  must  be  softened  and  toned 
down  into  an  expression  of  regretted  inability.  Unwilling- 
ness to  grant  a  favour  is  never  shown.  In  place  of  it  there 
is  seen  a  chastened  feeling  of  sorrow  that  unavoidable  but 
quite  imaginary  circumstances  render  it  wholly  impossible. 
Centuries  of  practice  in  this  form  of  evasion  have  made 
the  Chinese  matchlessly  fertile  in  the  invention  and  devel- 
opment of  excuses.  It  is  rare,  indeed,  that  one  is  caught 
at  a  loss  for  a  bit  of  artfully  embroidered  fiction  with  which 
to  hide  an  unwelcome  truth. 

The  same  remark  holds  good  in  regard  to  all  manner  of 
disagreeable  subjects  of  conversation.  They  must  be 
avoided.  Any  number  of  winding  paths  may  be  made 
around  them,  but  none  must  ever  go  directly  through.  A 
Chinese  very  seldom  will  make  an  intentionally  disagree- 
able or  offensive  remark. 


ETIQUETTE  AND  CEREMONY         255 

The  extent  to  which  the  Chinese  will  go  in  order  to 
cover  up  disagreeable  truths,  and  the  efforts  they  will  make 
to  disguise  their  real  feelings  and  motives,  are  simply  as- 
tonishing. This  is  equally  true  of  all  grades  and  classes. 
The  highest  officials  or  the  most  cultivated  scholars  are  not 
more  expert  or  uniform  in  their  obedience  to  the  exactions 
of  this  rule  of  propriety  than  the  meanest  coolie.  If  they 
are  obliged  to  announce  an  event  unwelcome  to  them,  it  is 
done  in  a  tone  and  manner  meant  to  carry  the  impression 
that  they  regard  it  as  utterly  trivial  and  unimportant.  I 
have  known  a  Chinese  to  mention  the  death  of  his  only 
son  with  a  laugh,  as  though  it  was  of  not  the  least  conse- 
quence ;  yet,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  it  was  in  his  opinion  the 
greatest  misfortune  that  could  have  befallen  him.  Only  in 
private,  and  to  his  closest  friends,  would  his  sense  of  dig- 
nity and  the  demands  of  etiquette  allow  him  to  uncover  his 
heart  and  show  his  actual  grief. 

This  habit  of  repression  and  misrepresentation  of  feeling 
has  given  the  outside  world  the  idea  that,  as  a  nation,  the 
Chinese  are  stolid,  indifferent,  and  lacking  in  nerves.  Such 
is  not  the  case.  They  are  keenly  sensitive,  proud,  and 
passionate.  As  might  be  expected,  when,  under  a  provo- 
cation too  great  for  endurance,  they  give  way  to  their  feel- 
ings, the  result,  whether  it  be  grief  or  anger,  is  as  extreme 
and  unreasonable,  from  our  standpoint,  as  their  ordinary 
suppression  of  emotion  is  absurd  and  unnecessary.  It  is 
difficult,  perhaps  unfair,  to  judge  them  in  this  regard,  since 
their  standard  is  absolutely  different  from  ours.  They  have 


256  CHINA 

covered  themselves  with  a  lacquer  of  courtesy  and  etiquette 
so  thick  and  highly  polished  that  the  real  fibre  of  character 
lying  underneath  is  discovered  only  upon  very  rare  occa- 
sions. Half  the  world  believes  that  the  lacquer  covers 
nothing  valuable,  or  containing  the  finer  qualities  of  man- 
hood. 


WOMEN  AND  MARRIAGE 

HENRT  CHARLES  SIRR 

AMONG  the  traditions  extant  in  China  relative  to 
women,  the  horrible  practice  of  deforming  the 
female  foot  is  thus  explained  in  an  old  legend : — 
the  Empress  of  an  Emperor,  who  reigned  in  China  before 
the  flood,  was  found  by  her  liege  lord  near  the  apartment 
of  one  of  the  principal  officers  of  the  household,  who  had 
the  reputation  of  being  a  lady-killer;  receiving  from  the 
Emperor  a  severe  reprimand,  and  torrent  of  abuse  for  her 
misconduct,  the  frightened  woman  pleaded  in  her  defence 
that  it  was  not  her  fault  but  that  of  her  feet,  which  were  so 
very  large,  they  bore  her  to  the  forbidden  precincts  of  a 
man's  apartment,  sorely  against  her  will  and  consent !  To 
obviate  the  recurrence  of  so  unpleasant  a  circumstance,  the 
offended  Emperor  ordered  the  fore-part  of  her  feet  to  be 
amputated  ;  and  the  Empress  to  conceal  the  fact  informed 
her  court  that  she  intended  to  introduce  the  fashion  of 
small  feet,  and  all  about  her  must  follow  her  example ; 
which  they,  like  all  their  sex  of  our  own  day,  most  cheer- 
fully did  rather  than  be  out  of  the  fashion.  This  is  the 
origin  of  the  crippled  foot,  which  henceforward  became  the 
rage. 

The  appearance  of  these  distorted  extremities,  which  are 


258  CHINA 

merely  tapering  stumps,  is  most  disgusting  to  an  European 
eye ;  at  a  very  early  age  the  foot,  below  the  instep,  is  forced 
into  a  line  with  the  leg,  the  toes  are  then  doubled  down 
under  the  sole  of  the  foot,  the  big  toe  being  made  to  over- 
lap the  others  ;  bandages  are  then  applied,  with  an  incredible 
amount  of  pressure,  which  in  the  Chinese  language  is 
termed  killing  the  foot,  and  for  six  weeks  the  child  suffers 
intolerable  agony.  After  that  period  the  pain  subsides,  and 
she  can  totter  about  on  these  stumps.  As  she  advances  in 
years,  the  foot  becomes  a  mass  of  filth  and  abhorrent 
humours,  and  we  have  been  informed  by  a  naval  surgeon, 
who  had  unbound  and  examined  the  leg  and  foot  of  a  Chi- 
nese lady,  that  the  effluvia  arising  from  it  was  more  offen- 
sive and  the  sight  more  disgusting  than  anything  he  had 
ever  witnessed  in  the  dissecting-room.  By  this  practice 
the  muscles  of  the  leg  are  injured  and  partially  destroyed, 
as  there  is  no  development  of  calf,  the  leg  gradually  taper- 
ing from  the  knee  downwards  to  the  extremity  of  the  foot ; 
and  this  is  regarded  by  the  Chinese  as  the  perfection  of 
beauty.  The  length  of  the  foot  from  heel  to  toe  varies 
from  three  to  four  inches ;  we  have  heard  of  a  foot  that 
measured  but  two  inches,  but  we  think  a  slight  mistake 
must  have  been  made  in  the  measurement :  the  bandages 
which  conceal  this  deformed  mass  of  corruption  from  view 
are  made  of  silk,  which  are  rarely  removed,  as  the  inner 
ones,  when  soiled,  are  covered  from  time  to  time  with  fresh 
ones  ;  over  all,  the  embroidered  silken  shoe  is  secured,  the 
pointed  toe  of  which  is  stuffed  with  cotton. 


WOMEN  AND  MARRIAGE  259 

In  the  families  of  the  wealthy  all  the  daughters  are  thus 
crippled  for  life ;  but  among  the  poorer  classes,  if  there  are 
two  or  more  daughters,  one  is  always  deprived  of  pedestrian 
power;  she  is  invariably  considered  superior  to  her  sisters 
and  may  become  a  wife;  the  others,  whose  feet  are  the 
natural  size,  can  only  become  concubines  or  handmaids, 
unless  they  intermarry  with  the  lowest  of  the  poor.  This 
horrid  and  barbarous  taste  for  deformed  feet  is  most  un- 
accountable in  a  nation  where  the  undistorted  natural  foot 
of  a  woman  is  the  perfect  model  of  beauty;  the  high  instep 
is  equal  to  the  Andalusian,  the  arch  of  the  sole  rivals  that 
of  the  Arab,  and  the  heel  and  ankle  are  most  symmetrically 
formed ;  but  such  a  foot  and  ankle,  as  we  have  just  de- 
scribed, can  only  be  seen  among  the  working  and  poorer 
classes. 

Owing  to  their  maimed  feet,  the  women  can  only  walk 
a  very  short  distance,  even  with  the  aid  of  their  crutches  or 
long  sticks,  which  they  invariably  use  in  the  house ;  the 
hobbling,  inelegant  motion  of  one  who  attempts  to  use  her 
feet  is  considered  most  gracefully  charming  by  the  Chinese, 
and  ladies  who  essay  this  exploit  of  danger,  for  they  are 
very  apt  to  measure  their  length  on  the  ground,  are  po- 
etically called  "  tottering  willows  of  fascination." 

Women  of  the  higher  orders,  when  they  go  abroad  to 
visit  their  friends,  are  carried  in  sedan-chairs,  or  boats, 
where  water  communication  is  available ;  but  those  whose 
means  will  not  allow  the  command  of  these  conveyances 
are  carried  on  the  backs  of  men,  or  of  women  who  are 


260  CHINA 

blessed  with  feet  of  the  natural  size.  The  whole  female 
character  of  countenance  appears  to  be  completely  changed 
by  the  barbarous  practice  in  question ;  for  the  expression  of 
face  appertaining  to  a  Chinese  beauty  (mark  ye,  none  are 
beauties  that  have  not  deformed  feet)  is  that  of  languor  and 
pain,  completely  devoid  of  animation,  and  indicative  of  the 
suffering  which  the  ligatured  feet  may  produce,  while  the 
faces  of  uncrippled  females  are  full  of  life  and  vivacity. 
Chinese  notions  of  a  beautiful  face  and  well-proportioned 
form  are  as  dissimilar  to  ours  as  their  idea  of  a  pretty  foot :  a 
Chinawoman,  to  be  considered  handsome,  must  have  a  long, 
thin,  flat  face,  high  cheek-bones,  a  circular  mouth,  thin  lips, 
a  very  small  long  eye,  arched  eyebrows,  remarkably  thin, 
low  forehead,  and  a  countenance  void  of  expression ;  she 
must  be  rather  tall,  her  figure  nearly  fleshless,  and  develop- 
ment of  hips  or  bosom  would  completely  mar  all  her  pre- 
tensions to  beauty;  the  complexion  must  be  without  a 
vestige  of  health's  roseate  hue  and  the  skin  of  a  pale  yellow 
tint.  A  Chinese  belle  bedaubs  her  face  and  hands  with  a 
white  stone,  ground  to  powder,  used  as  a  cosmetic,  until 
her  complexion  is  an  agreeable  mixture  of  dirty-white  and 
saffron.  No  nation  in  the  world  relies  so  much  on  foreign 
aid  as  the  Chinese  women  do,  for  they  are  literally  one 
mass  of  paints,  false  hair,  oils  and  pork-fat.  Notwithstand- 
ing all  these  adventitious  aids,  we  have  occasionally  seen  in 
China  some  very  good-looking,  well-grown  women,  al- 
though their  complexions  were  rather  yellow,  still  their 
features  were  pleasing,  and  their  countenances  animated, 


WOMEN  AND  MARRIAGE  261 

but  they  belonged  to  the  lower  classes,  so  possibly  were  not 
made  up ;  for  assuredly,  according  to  Chinese  ideas,  they 
were  not  beauties,  as  their  forms  were  those  of  nature's 
most  beautiful  handiwork,  woman,  and  not  of  two  laths 
placed  together. 

Although  the  women  all  smoke  and  chew  betel,  their 
teeth  are  usually  very  white  and  beautiful,  and  the  hands 
and  arms  of  the  lower  orders,  including  the  tanka,  or  boat- 
women,  are  finely-shaped  and  proportioned ;  taking  the 
women  collectively  as  a  nation,  their  hands,  arms  and  feet 
are  the  most  beautiful  we  have  ever  seen ;  always  premising 
when  the  foot  is  in  its  natural  undistorted  state.  The  Chi- 
nese have  as  strange  ideas  about  nails  as  they  have  about 
beautiful  faces,  forms  and  feet ;  a  Chinese  lady  allows  the 
nails  of  her  third  and  fourth  fingers  to  grow  to  an  incredible 
length,  and  such  is  their  length  that  at  night  they  twist 
them  around  their  wrists,  to  prevent  the  nail  being  broken ; 
first  softening  them  by  saturating  the  finger  in  oil. 

This  penchant  for  long  nails  is  indulged  in  by  the  male 
community  also,  and  frequently  men  have  the  nails  of  the 
middle  and  small  fingers  as  long  as  the  fingers  themselves ; 
wearing  at  night  a  silver  case,  or  shield  to  preserve  them  : 
to  such  an  extent  is  this  practice  carried  that  shopkeepers 
and  upper  servants  invariably  endeavour  to  let  one  or  more 
nails  grow  to  a  considerable  length  as  a  proof  they  are  not 
engaged  in  any  manual  occupation. 

The  apartments  devoted  to  the  women  are  set  apart  ex- 
clusively for  their  use,  as  they  do  not  eat,  or  sit  with  their 


262  CHINA 

husband,  or,  more  correctly  speaking,  with  the  master  of 
the  house;  none  but  female  attendants,  or  lads,  are  per- 
mitted to  enter  these  rooms  (as  the  chastity  of  the  women 
is  little  trusted)  j  except  when  the  head  of  the  household  is 
present,  and  then  only  the  nearest  male  relatives,  such  as 
father,  brother  and  son,  are  suffered  to  remain  with  the 
women. 

Male  children  are  allowed  to  remain  in  the  women's 
apartments  until  they  are  ten  years  of  age ;  after  that  period 
they  are  taken  from  their  mothers  and  placed  under  the 
tutelage  of  men. 

Early  marriages  are  encouraged  in  China:  among  the 
mandarins  and  wealthy  classes,  the  matrimonial  age  varies 
from  sixteen  to  twenty  years  in  males ;  from  twelve  to 
fourteen  in  females :  the  poorer  classes  marry  as  soon  as 
they  acquire  sufficient  money  to  purchase  a  wife  and  defray 
the  attendant  expenses.  Occasionally  a  poor  man  will  go 
to  the  foundling  hospital  in  his  neighbourhood  and  obtain  a 
girl  that  he  may  take  her  home  and  educate  her,  giving  her 
in  marriage  to  his  son  when  the  young  folks  have  arrived 
at  a  proper  age :  the  thrift  and  caution  of  the  national  char- 
acter is  fully  developed  in  this  arrangement:  in  the  first 
place,  the  money  is  saved  which  must  have  been  expended 
in  the  purchase  of  a  wife ;  in  the  second,  the  girl  is  educated 
by  her  mother-in-law  (that  is  to  be),  thereby  falling  into  all 
the  old  lady's  economical  habits ;  thirdly,  and  lastly,  if  the 
girl  is  not  good-tempered,  industrious  and  respectful  in  her 
demeanour  to  her  intended  husband  and  his  parents,  she  is 


WOMEN  AND  MARRIAGE  263 

very  quickly  sent  about  her  business,  without  the  attendant 
fuss  which  ensues  when  a  wife  is  sent  back  to  her  family 
for  misconduct  after  her  marriage. 

The  parties  about  to  contract  a  marriage  never  see  each 
other,  the  whole  affair  being  arranged  by  their  relations,  or 
go-betweens,  which  are  old  women,  who  describe  the  lady 
in  the  most  glowing  terms,  or  the  reverse,  according  to  the 
presents  which  are  made  to  them.  One  of  their  customs 
before  marriage,  although  synonymous  with  our  fashion  of 
sending  a  lady's  portrait,  is  most  extraordinary :  as  the 
damsel  cannot  be  seen,  her  shoe  is  sent  to  the  gentleman, 
that  he  may  be  enabled  to  judge  of  the  dimensions  of  her 
crippled  feet — the  smallness  of  the  foot  being  a  Chinaman's 
beau  ideal  of  perfection. 

Daughters  have  no  fortunes  in  China ;  but  the  man  who 
is  about  to  marry  agrees  to  give  a  certain  sum,  which  is  laid 
out  in  clothes  and  jewels  for  the  bride  :  the  sums  of  money 
vary  according  to  the  rank  of  the  parties ;  the  mandarins 
frequently  giving  six  thousand  taels  for  a  wife  (a  tael  being 
six  and  four  pence  sterling)  and  the  bride  is  invariably 
selected  from  a  family  of  equal  station. 

Amongst  the  middle  and  lower  classes,  the  price  of  a  wife 
varies  from  one  thousand  dollars  until  as  small  a  sum  as  ten 
dollars  is  given ;  and  a  man  who  cannot  pay  the  whole  sum 
at  once  does  so  by  instalments :  at  first,  what  is  termed  the 
bargain  money  is  given  ;  this  binds  the  parents  of  the  female 
to  dispose  of  her  to  no  other  person ;  the  presents  are  then 
stipulated  for :  when  the  last  instalment  is  paid  and  the  last 


264  CHINA 

gift  received,  then,  and  not  until  then,  is  the  bride  trans- 
ferred to  her  husband.  The  same  practice  is  also  adopted 
with  the  handmaids  or  concubines,  in  all  particulars. 
•  The  presents  given  to  the  female's  parents,  in  the  middle 
and  lower  ranks,  are  sometimes  of  a  ludicrous  description, 
according  to  our  barbarian  notions,  being  fat  pigs,  dried 
fish,  live  poultry,  chests  of  tea,  sugar-candy,  preserved 
fruits  and  such  like  unromantic  gear ;  the  quality  and 
quantity  of  these  presents  is  invariably  agreed  upon  when 
the  bargain  is  first  struck. 

The  ceremony  of  the  marriage  is  gone  through  at  the 
bridegroom's  house  ;  upon  the  nuptial  day,  the  bride  leaves 
her  father's  home  accompanied  by  a  numerous  train  of  at- 
tendants, the  bride  is  placed  in  a  sedan-chair,  most  pro- 
fusely gilded  and  decorated  most  gaily  with  artificial  flowers 
of  brilliant  hues,1  attendants  bearing  torches  and  flambeaux 
surround  the  chair,  the  servant  who  bears  the  key  of  the 
precious  casket  walking  nearest  the  sedan — for  we  must 
state  that  no  sooner  is  the  lady  seated  in  the  chair  than  the 
door  is  locked  by  her  father,  or  nearest  male  relative,  the 
key  being  given  to  the  confidential  servant,  who  has  orders 
to  deliver  it  only  to  the  bridegroom.  Numerous  attendants 
precede  and  follow  the  bride's  chair,  carrying  flags,  magnif- 
icent lanterns,  beating  gongs  and  sounding  wind  instru- 
ments ;  the  ladies  of  the  two  families  are  in  sedan-chairs 
which  follow  the  bride's ;  the  male  relatives  and  friends 

1  White,  being  the  mourning  colour  of  China,  is  as  carefully  avoided  on 
all  bridal  occasions  as  black  is  in  our  own  dear  land. 


WOMEN  AND  MARRIAGE  265 

walking  in  the  procession.  There  is  a  great  display  of 
presents  of  all  kinds,  which  are  to  accompany  the  bride  to 
her  new  home.  These  consist  of  ladies'  dresses  borne  on 
stands,  carved  chests,  which  are  to  be  supposed  to  contain 
all  sorts  of  treasures  ;  stands  in  which  are  placed  jars,  con- 
taining Sam-shoo,  wine,  and  preserved  fruits ;  cages,  con- 
taining the  mandarin  ducks,1  fowls,  and,  frequently,  a  fat 
pig,  in  a  gaily-decorated  bamboo  cage,  bring  up  the  rear  of 
the  presents ;  the  grandeur  of  a  marriage  procession  is 
measured  by  the  number  of  attendants. 

At  the  door  of  the  house  stands  the  bridegroom  magnifi- 
cently attired,  to  receive  the  bride,  the  ladies  of  the  family 
first  alight  from  their  sedans  and  cluster  about  the  bride's 
chair,  the  bridegroom  receives  the  key  from  the  servant, 
opens  the  door  and  raises  the  bride's  veil,  to  view  her  face 
(for,  as  before  remarked,  no  interview  takes  place  previous 
to  the  bride  leaving  her  father's  house)  ;  if  her  looks  do  not 
please  the  gentleman,  he  is  at  full  liberty  to  shut  the  door 
in  the  lady's  face,  lock  her  up  and  send  her  back  to  her 
father,  and  this  frequently  happens ;  all  proceeding 
smoothly,  the  bride  is  assisted  to  leave  the  sedan  by  the 
bridegroom,  and  is  carried  over  the  sill  of  the  doorway,  in 
the  arms  of  matrons  (who  are  part  of  her  own  family  and 
the  mothers  of  sons) ;  the  bride  is  thus  conveyed  over  the 
threshold,  as  it  would  be  considered  unlucky  were  her  foot 

1  The  mandarin  ducks  are  emblems  with  the  Chinese  of  conjugal 
fidelity ;  and  it  is  asserted  by  many  that  when  one  of  these  birds  die,  the 
sorrowing  mate  commrts  suicide  by  putting  the  head  under  water  and  thus 
drowning  itself,  not  choosing  to  survive  the  lost  partner. 


266  CHINA 

to  touch  the  ground,  being  an  omen  of  domestic  misery, 
before  she  is  close  to  the  domestic  shrine. 

As  soon  as  the  matrons  have  borne  the  bride  into  the 
hall  of  ancestors,  they  place  her  on  the  ground  before  the 
altar,  the  bridegroom  and  bride  then  prostrate  themselves 
before  joss  and  go  through  some  religious  forms,  drinking 
out  of  the  same  gilt  cup  and  sitting  down  to  a  feast,  the 
husband  and  wife  eating  at  the  same  table  for  thefrst  and 
last  time  in  their  lives.  At  the  conclusion  of  the  feast,  the 
bride  salutes  the  ladies  of  her  husband's  family  ;  the  party 
then  separates,  the  bridegroom  retiring  into  another  de- 
partment to  feast  with  his  friends,  whilst  the  bride  and 
ladies  are  conducted  to  the  women's  apartments  to  amuse 
and  divert  themselves  as  best  they  may. 

The  Chinese  custom  does  not  permit  a  bride  to  speak  to 
visitors  for  the  first  three  days  after  her  marriage,  nor  to 
leave  the  house  to  pay  visits  until  thirty  days  from  the 
wedding-day  have  elapsed,  save  she  leaves  her  husband's 
domicile  to  see  her  parents ;  and  as  the  Chinese  are  very 
strict  in  the  observance  of  ancient  customs,  this  code  of 
bridal  etiquette  is  rigidly  adhered  to. 


THE  POOR  IN  CHINA 

CHESTER  HOLCOMBE 

THE  opinion,  sometimes  expressed,  that  the  Chinese 
are  a  very  rich  people,  is  quite  erroneous.  While 
the  empire  is  rich  in  undeveloped  resources  and 
capabilities,  the  masses  of  the  population  are  poor  with  a 
poverty  of  which  we  have  only  a  faint  conception.  The 
average  of  wealth  to  each  person  in  the  United  States  is 
many  times  greater  than  in  China.  The  word  "  poverty  " 
does  not  convey  at  all  the  same  idea  in  the  two  countries. 
In  America  a  man  is  called  poor  who  has  a  family  to  sup- 
port upon  earnings  of,  perhaps,  two  dollars  a  day.  In 
China  such  a  man  would  be  looked  upon  as  living  in  the 
very  lap  of  luxury.  Here,  when  the  labouring  man  cannot 
afford  meat  twice  daily,  he  and  those  dependent  upon  him 
are  supposed  to  be  upon  the  verge  of  hardship  and  destitu- 
tion. Meat  is  cheaper  there  than  here,  yet  a  labourer 
there,  receiving  what  he  considers  good  wages,  cannot 
afford  to  eat  a  pound  in  a  month.  Poverty  here  means  a 
narrow  and  limited  supply  of  luxuries.  There  it  means 
actual  hunger  and  nakedness,  if  not  starvation  within  sight. 
Of  course  in  China,  as  in  all  other  lands,  there  is  a  close 
and  necessary  connection  between  the  cost  of  food  and  the 
price  of  labour.  If  wages  are  very  low,  the  cost  of  such 


268  CHINA 

articles  of  food  as  are  absolutely  necessary  to  sustain  life 
and  furnish  strength  to  do  a  given  amount  of  work  must  be 
correspondingly  reduced,  or  death  from  starvation  is  the 
immediate  result.  The  Chinese  do  not  live  poorly  be- 
cause they  desire  nothing  better.  Like  all  other  men,  they 
live  as  well  as  their  earnings  or  resources  will  allow.  A 
wealthy  Chinaman  dresses  as  expensively,  though  in  a 
different  style,  has  a  table  as  luxurious,  though  his  taste 
may  be  esteemed  peculiar,  and  generally  maintains  the  same 
elegance  as  his  Western  brother.  There,  as  everywhere 
else,  the  income  must  control  the  expense. 

Skilled  labourers  in  China  earn  from  ten  to  thirty  cents 
in  silver  each  day,  the  average  coming  below  twenty.  Un- 
skilled labourers,  or  men  who,  in  the  expressive  language 
of  the  country,  "  sell  their  strength,"  earn  from  five  to  ten 
cents  each  day,  the  average  not  rising  above  seven.  This 
meagre  sum,  in  a  country  where  bachelors  and  old  maids 
are  unknown,  must  furnish  the  entire  support  of  the  man 
himself,  and  from  one  to  four  or  five  other  persons.  I  have 
often  hired  a  special  messenger  to  travel  a  distance  of  thirty 
miles  for  eight  cents.  Boatmen  are  regularly  hired  to  track 
a  native  boat,  pulling  it  against  the  stream  from  Tientsin  to 
Tungcho,  a  distance  of  one  hundred  and  twenty-five  miles, 
for  fifty  cents  and  their  food  one  way.  They  make  the 
return  journey  on  foot — that  is,  they  travel  a  greater  dis- 
tance than  that  separating  Boston  and  New  York  for  fifty 
cents  in  silver  and  one-half  of  their  food.  Countless  multi- 
tudes of  Chinese  earn  a  living  by  gathering  offal  on  country 


THE  POOR  IN  CHINA  269 

roads,  and  it  is  nothing  unusual  to  see  a  lively  scrimmage 
between  twelve  or  fifteen  men  and  boys  for  the  possession 
of  a  heap  of  horse-manure.  This  may  serve  to  indicate 
what  poverty  means  in  China.  To  an  immense  number 
of  the  people,  failure  of  work  for  one  day  carries  with  it, 
as  an  inevitable  sequence,  failure  of  any  sort  of  food  for 
the  same  period. 

From  the  prices  paid  for  labour,  as  given  above,  it  is  not 
a  difficult  matter  to  estimate  the  extremely  narrow  limits 
within  which  the  daily  expenditures  of  a  majority  of  the 
four  hundred  millions  of  Chinese  must  be  kept.  The 
difficulty  lies  in  discovering  how  they  live  at  all.  Their 
daily  food  consists  of  rice  steamed,  cabbage  boiled  in  an 
unnecessarily  large  quantity  of  water,  and  for  a  relish,  a 
few  bits  of  raw  turnip,  pickled  in  a  strong  brine.  When 
disposed  to  be  very  extravagant  and  reckless  of  expense, 
they  buy  a  cash  worth  of  dried  watermelon  seeds,  and 
munch  them  as  a  dessert.  In  summer  they  eat  raw 
cucumbers,  skin,  prickles,  and  all,  raw  carrots  or  turnips, 
or,  perhaps,  a  melon,  not  wasting  the  rind.  In  certain" 
parts  of  the  empire  wheat  flour,  oat,  or  cornmeal  takes  the 
place  of  rice.  With  this  variation  the  description  answers 
with  entire  accuracy  for  the  food  consumption  of  the  great 
masses  of  the  Chinese  people — not  for  the  beggars  or  the 
very  poor,  but  for  the  common  classes  of  industrious 
working  men  and  their  families,  whether  in  the  great  cities 
or  in  the  rural  districts. 

An  ordinary  Chinese  working   man  would  be   far  less 


270  CHINA 

likely  to  be  able  to  purchase  supplies  for  his  family  in  any 
quantity,  than  a  man  of  the  same  rank  of  life  here  would  be 
to  purchase  several  thousand  dollars'  worth  of  bonds  or 
other  securities.  One  of  the  most  common  sights  in  any 
city  or  town  of  China  is  that  of  a  boy  or  girl  with  three  or 
four  pieces  of  cash  in  one  hand  and  a  couple  of  dishes  of 
coarse  pottery  in  the  other  going,  with  great  dignity  and  im- 
portance, to  purchase  the  materials  for  the  family  dinner, 
and  the  fuel  with  which  to  cook  it.  The  bill  of  expendi- 
tures would  run  somewhat  as  follows  :  Charcoal,  one  cash  ; 
rice  or  flour,  two  cash  ;  cabbage,  one  cash.  On  occasions 
of  prosperity  another  cash  would  be  spent  for  oil  or  soy, 
and  on  very  rare  and  exceptional  festive  days  still  another 
would  be  invested  in  purchasing  about  a  teaspoonful  of 
weak  alcohol,  to  be  drunk  hot  with  the  meal. 

The  clothing  of  the  Chinese  poor  is  as  simple  as  the  diet. 
In  the  summer  it  consists  of  shoes  and  stockings,  both 
made  of  cotton  cloth,  and  trousers,  unlined,  of  the  same 
material.  A  jacket  or  blouse,  also  of  cotton,  completes  his 
apparel,  but  this  garment  is  frequently  omitted  if  the 
temperature  will  permit. 

In  spring  and  autumn  the  poor  man  wears,  if  he  can  af- 
ford them,  garments  of  the  same  material  lined.  In  the 
winter,  in  a  climate  like  that  of  New  York  or  Philadelphia, 
his  trousers  are  wadded,  and  his  upper  garment  is  either 
also  wadded,  or  is  a  sheepskin  tanned  with  the  wool  on, 
which  is  worn  next  the  skin.  He  has  no  knowledge  of 
underclothing  of  any  sort.  One  suit  answers  for  all  hours, 


THE  POOR  IN  CHINA  271 

since  he  sleeps  in  the  same  clothes  in  which  he  works. 
Three  dollars  would  be  more  than  sufficient  to  buy  the 
entire  summer  wardrobe  of  what  may  be  called  a  comfort- 
ably poor  Chinese — that  is,  one  at  work  on  steady  wages. 
Twenty-five  or  thirty  cents  would  be  more  than  the  value 
of  the  rags  worn  by  the  very  poor.  One  peculiarity  of  the 
beggar  class  is  worthy  of  notice.  They  invariably  wear 
shoes.  The  usual  covering  of  a  lusty  Chinese  beggar  is  a 
bowl  with  which  to  receive  donations  of  food  or  money, 
and  a  pair  of  shoes.  He  may  not  have  the  bowl,  but  his 
feet  are  always  covered.  A  barefooted  Chinaman  is  never 
seen. 

The  house  of  the  poor  man  in  China  is  built  either  of 
sun-dried  or  broken  brick  laid  up  in  mud,  and  roofed  some- 
times with  tiles,  but  more  commonly  with  a  mixture  of 
lime  and  clay  spread  upon  reed  mats.  It  is  never  more 
than  one  story  in  height,  and  for  a  family  of  five  or  six 
persons  seldom  consists  of  more  than  one  room.  It  has  a 
floor  of  either  mud  or  brick,  never  of  boards,  windows  of 
paper,  and  a  door  sufficiently  open  for  all  purposes  of  venti- 
lation. It  has  no  chimney,  and  no  fire  is  used  summer  or 
winter,  except  the  small  amount  necessary  for  the  family 
cooking  The  entire  furniture  consists  of  a  table,  a  stool 
or  two,  a  wardrobe  when  it  can  be  afforded,  and  a  raised 
platform  of  brick  covered  with  a  coarse  mat  of  reeds,  which 
serves  for  the  family  bed.  Flues  run  underneath  this,  and 
the  smoke  and  heat  from  the  fired  used  in  cooking  passes 
through  them,  thus  securing  a  small  amount  of  warmth. 


272  CHINA 

In  southern  China  the  brick  platform  is  replaced  by  one 
built  of  bamboo  or  some  other  inexpensive  wood. 

It  is  to  be  feared  that  men  of  Western  lands,  if  asked 
the  question  whether,  under  such  circumstances  and  condi- 
tions, life  is  worth  living,  would  answer  in  the  negative. 
And  it  could  not  be  a  matter  for  surprise  if  such  abject 
poverty  developed  great  selfishness,  indifference  to  the  suf- 
ferings of  others,  and  general  disregard  of  the  common 
obligations  of  humanity  j  yet  in  simple  justice  it  must  be 
said  that  such  is  not  the  fact.  In  China,  as  elsewhere,  it  is 
not  the  wealthy  but  the  poor  who  are  most  prompt  and 
liberal,  in  proportion  to  their  resources,  to  respond  to  the 
necessities  of  those  even  more  unfortunate  than  themselves. 
Much  might  be  written  of  the  many  pleasant  phases  of 
Chinese  life  among  the  poor,  which  is  developed  by  their 
extreme  poverty,  their  patience  and  quiet  endurance,  their 
readiness  to  help  each  other,  and  their  faithful  care,  even 
when  suffering  the  utmost  depths  of  want,  of  the  aged  and 
infirm.  It  should  also  not  be  forgotten  that  from  such 
homes  have  come,  in  a  very  large  measure,  the  distinguished 
scholars  and  statesmen  who  have  been  the  practical  rulers 
of  the  nation,  and  have  given  her  a  literature  and  a  history 
of  which,  in  some  features  at  least,  she  has  no  cause  to  be 
ashamed.  Life  has  some  pleasant  pictures,  some  lessons 
worthy  to  be  learned,  even  in  the  poverty  and  hunger  of  a 
Chinese  hovel. 

China  has  for  many  centuries  been  confronted  with  the 
exact  reverse  of  the  problem  with  which  the  United  States 


THE  POOR  IN  CHINA  273 

for  the  greater  part  of  its  existence  has  had  to  deal.  With 
us  the  practical  question  has  been,  at  least  until  recently,  by 
what  labour-saving  devices  one  man  may  be  enabled  to  ac- 
complish the  work  of  ten.  The  result  here  is  what  might 
have  been  expected.  Necessity  has  spurred  ingenuity,  and 
Americans  lead  the  world  in  the  invention  of  labour-saving 
machines  of  every  sort.  In  China  the  opposite  question 
has  been  a  subject  of  constant  and  anxious  study  from  a 
period  far  antedating  the  discovery  of  this  Western  Conti- 
nent. It  may  be  stated  in  these  words :  With  an  excess- 
ive population,  how  may  any  given  piece  of  work  be  so 
divided  and  subdivided  as  to  furnish  the  barest  sustenance 
to  the  largest  possible  number  of  persons  ?  One  result  of 
the  study  of  this  problem  is  also  what  might  have  been 
anticipated.  The  Chinese  are  the  most  economical  race 
upon  the  face  of  the  earth.  If  they  lack  in  the  broader 
field  of  ingenuity,  they  are  easily  the  ingenious  masters  of 
the  science  and  art  of  economics. 

Absolutely  nothing  is  wasted.  The  smallest  rags  and 
shreds  of  cloth  are  saved,  carefully  pasted  together,  and 
form  the  insole  of  shoes.  Bits  of  woods  are  ingeniously 
glued  and  dovetailed  into  other  bits,  until  a  board  or  post  is 
literally  built  up.  Half  the  houses  in  the  city  of  Peking 
are  built  of  fragments  of  brick  which  have  been  in  use  for 
centuries,  and  may  continue  to  do  duty  for  centuries  to 
come.  A  large  business  is  done  in  the  capital  in  making 
lamps  from  the  discarded  sardine,  oyster,  and  other  cans. 
In  the  country  the  weeds  and  grass  by  the  roadside  are 


274  CHINA 

carefully  gathered  by  women  and  children,  the  entire  sur- 
face being  scratched  over  and  over  again,  and  this  refuse 
does  duty  as  fuel.  The  roots  of  corn  and  other  grains  are 
carefully  spaded  up,  the  earth  beaten  from  them,  and  when 
dried  in  the  sun  they  serve  the  same  useful  purpose. 

In  many  of  these  lines  it  is  cheaper  to  us  to  waste  than 
to  save,  and  what  is  true  economy  among  the  Chinese 
would  be  false  economy  with  us.  But  there  labour  counts 
for  little — is  indeed  the  cheapest  article  in  the  market  j 
hence  its  employment,  even  where  the  results  are  of  the 
most  trifling  nature,  is  wise. 

And  among  the  poorer  classes  every  one  works.  The 
solitary  exception  is  the  infant  too  young  to  walk,  and  he, 
safely  deposited  upon  his  back  on  a  mat,  lies  quietly  doub- 
ling his  fists  and  blinking  at  the  sun,  which  is  his  part  in 
the  labours  of  the  day.  Certain  processes  in  the  prepara- 
tion of  tea  and  silk  are  reserved  exclusively  for  women  and 
girls,  who  earn  from  one  to  three  cents  a  day  by  this  labour. 
The  straw  braid  from  which  our  hats  are  made  comes  from 
one  of  the  northern  provinces  of  China.  It  is  woven  by 
women  and  children,  who  rarely  can  earn  more  than  two 
cents  a  day  in  the  work. 


DRESS 

HENRT  CHARLES  SIRR 

THE  clothing  of  the  lower  classes  of  men  consists 
of  very  wide  loose  trousers  and  a  species  of  jacket 
which  buttons  at  the  side,  made  of  highly  glazed 
calico,  of  native  manufacture;  whilst  the  very  poor  and  the 
coolies  wear  only  trousers,  going  barefooted ;  and  mendi- 
cants may  be  constantly  seen  with  an  old  piece  of  matting 
fastened  round  their  middle,  scarcely  sufficiently  large  to 
cover  their  nakedness.  The  lower  classes  wear  straw  and 
bamboo  hats,  the  brims  of  which  exceed  eighteen  inches  in 
depth ;  these  machines  are  used  to  protect  them  from  the 
sun's  rays,  and  present  a  most  extraordinary  appearance  to 
unhabituated  eyes,  as  each  individual  with  this  affair  on  his 
sconce,  in  our  humble  opinion,  looks  like  an  animated 
mushroom,  or  being,  who  has  chosen  to  stick  his  umbrella 
on  his  head,  instead  of  holding  it  over  his  seat  of  knowledge. 
The  head  gear  is  only  to  be  equalled  in  its  strangeness  by 
the  cloaks  and  trousers  worn  by  the  boatmen  and  coolies 
during  the  rainy  season ;  these  articles  of  dress  are  made  of 
reeds,  and  individuals  thus  clad  look  most  grotesque,  re- 
sembling some  new  species  of  huge  porcupine ;  but,  how- 
ever absurd  this  costume  may  appear  to  us  red-bristled 
barbarians,  it  is  one  well  adapted  to  the  season  during  which 


276  CHINA 

it  is  worn,  as  it  is  impervious  to  rain,  the  water  running  off 
the  points  of  the  reeds  as  from  so  many  miniature  water- 
spouts. 

The  clothing  of  the  middle  classes  differs  only  in  the 
materials  of  which  the  jacket  and  trousers  are  made,  these 
articles  being  composed  either  of  crape,  silk,  fine  long-cloth, 
or  grass-cloth,  bleached  or  unbleached,  of  native  manufac- 
ture. The  stockings  worn  by  this  class  are  usually  made 
of  calico,  whilst  the  shoes  have  uppers  made  of  black  or 
coloured  silk,  embroidered  or  plain,  with  soles  of  white  felt, 
three  inches  thick,  with  turned-up  toes.  During  winter  or 
cold  weather,  a  black  satin  cap  is  worn,  padded  and  em- 
broidered, the  form  of  which  is  not  unlike  a  skullcap ;  and 
a  wadded  jacket  or  robe  made  of  silk  or  crape,  reaching  be- 
low the  knees  with  one  or  more  shorter  ones,  according  to 
the  temperature  or  feelings  of  the  wearer ;  whilst  the  legs 
are  encased  in  a  species  of  legging  which  is  worn  over  their 
trousers.  The  mandarins  and  wealthy  classes  wear  long 
silken  robes  reaching  to  the  feet,  silk  trousers  and  black 
satin  boots,  with  felt  soles  three  inches  thick,  the  toes  of 
which  are  turned  up  and  pointed. 

The  Chinese  have  not  pockets,  or  receptacles  of  any 
kind  in  their  dress,  but  underneath  their  jackets  or  robes, 
they  wear  girdles  of  more  or  less  costly  materials,  according 
to  the  wealth  of  the  individual;  to  which  is  usually  attached 
their  chop-sticks,  a  purse,  a  silk  handkerchief,  and  a  watch, 
frequently  two  watches,  as  the  Chinese  have  a  great  fancy 
for  pairs  of  every  article  that  is  expensive.  In  winter  these 


DRESS  277 

classes  wear  half  a  score  garments  of  various  denominations, 
all  being  thickly  wadded  with  cotton ;  robes,  spencers,  tip- 
pets, large  and  small,  some  lined  with  furs,  whilst  others 
are  padded,  all  are  worn  at  the  time  by  a  China  mandarin, 
or  wealthy  man.  A  black  satin  cap,  with  a  turned-up  brim 
of  velvet,  three  inches  in  depth,  is  used  at  this  season ;  the 
top  of  this  cap  is  surmounted  by  a  button,  which  denotes 
the  wearer's  rank;  if  a  mandarin,  from  beneath  this  orna- 
ment, a  species  of  tassel  is  pendent ;  this  cap  is  totally  dis- 
similar, both  in  form  and  texture,  from  that  which  is  worn 
by  the  middle  classes.  When  the  weather  is  very  severe, 
a  velvet  cravat  or  stock  is  worn,  about  two  inches  in  depth ; 
this  is  lined  with  a  thick  stiff  substance  and  is  clasped  at 
the  back  of  the  neck.  In  summer  thinner  robes  are  worn, 
made  of  light  silk,  or  exceedingly  fine  grass-cloth,  which 
is  as  fine  in  texture  as  the  most  delicate  French  cambric ; 
the  cap,  which  is  of  a  conical  form,  is  composed  of  exceed- 
ingly fine,  white  straw,  plaited  in  a  peculiar  manner;  this  is 
ornamented  with  a  flowing  tassel  of  ruby  coloured  silk,  or 
the  very  fine,  long,  lustrous  hair,  which  is  obtained  from  a 
species  of  goat  and  which  is  highly  prized;  this  hair  is 
dyed  the  colour  of,  and  made  in  the  same  form  as  the  silken 
tassel,  being  surmounted  with  a  button. 

So  much  importance  is  attached  by  the  Chinese  nation 
to  trivial  events  that  neither  the  summer  nor  winter  cloth- 
ing can  be  used  or  changed  until  the  Emperor  issues  an 
edict,  which  is  notified  in  the  Peking  Official  Gazette,  and 
which  is  sent  round  to  the  viceroys  or  governors  of  each 


278  CHINA 

province ;  this  paper  states  that  on  such  a  day,  in  such  a 
month,  at  such  an  hour,  the  Emperor  will  exchange  his 
winter  for  his  summer  clothing,  or  vice  versa.  At  the  ap- 
pointed day  and  hour  the  mandarins  of  every  district  and 
province  simultaneously  change  their  clothing,  the  in- 
habitants following  their  example  of  laudable  obedience. 

The  dresses  of  the  mandarins  worn  on  state  occasions 
and  at  festivals  are  the  most  splendid  that  can  well  be  con- 
ceived, the  backs  and  fronts  of  the  robes  being  covered 
with  the  richest  embroidery ;  the  devices  and  patterns 
being  worked  in  gold,  various  coloured  silks,  of  the  most 
brilliant  hues;  whilst  occasionally  pearls  are  intermingled 
with  the  embroidery.  And  we  have  heard  of  state  robes 
costing  two  thousand  dollars.  The  sleeves  of  these  dresses 
are  made  considerably  longer  than  the  arms  of  the  wear- 
ers; the  lower  portion  being  much  longer  than  the  upper 
to  allow  the  hand  to  be  concealed,  as  it  is  not  considered 
consistent  with  the  Chinese  code  of  etiquette  to  show  the 
hand  uncovered. 

The  umbrella  and  fan  are  in  continual  requisition  during 
the  summer;  the  umbrellas  used  by  the  mandarins  and 
wealthy  are  made  of  silk,  which  is  figured  and  ornamented, 
according  to  their  station  ;  the  mandarins  having  an  imita- 
tion button  on  the  top  to  denote  their  rank ;  these  um- 
brellas are  held  over  their  heads  by  attendants  when  a 
sedan-chair  is  not  used.  The  umbrella  used  by  the 
middle  and  lower  classes  is  made  of  bamboo,  covered  with 
thick  paper  which  is  blackened,  oiled  and  varnished  over, 


DRESS  279 

having  a  thick  cane  handle ;  this  common  article,  the  cost 
of  which  is  not  a  quarter  dollar,  is  the  most  efficient  pro- 
tection against  the  sun's  rays,  which  can  never  strike 
through  the  prepared  paper,  although  the  substance  of  the 
material  is  not  the  sixteenth  of  an  inch  in  thickness.  The 
manufactory  at  Chin-chew  for  umbrellas  is  celebrated  all 
over  China ;  the  material  of  which  these  articles  are  made 
is  a  species  of  white  varnished  paper,  perfectly  transparent 
and  most  beautifully  painted  with  brilliant  colours ;  the 
subjects  of  these  paintings  being  usually  flowers  and  figures. 
But,  although  the  beauty  of  these  umbrellas  is  proverbial, 
they  are  not  so  good  a  protection  from  the  scorching 
Eastern  sun  as  the  more  ordinary  and  common  black  one. 

The  use  of  the  fan  in  China  during  the  hot  season  is 
universal  and  continual ;  if  your  tailor  comes  for  instruc- 
tions as  to  how  large  your  white  jackets  are  to  be  made,  he 
raises  his  leg  and  pulls  out  his  fan,  not  from  a  case,  but 
from  his  stocking,  and  commences  fanning  himself  with 
great  composure.  When  your  compredore,  or  butler,  ap- 
pears before  you  to  receive  your  commands,  he  possibly 
finds  the  atmosphere  of  your  room  too  hot  for  him,  there- 
fore, he  either  opens  his  fan,  which  is  in  his  hand,  or  pulls 
it  from  his  stocking,  using  the  air-agitator  with  equal 
vehemence  and  nonchalance.  Your  servants,  whilst  wait- 
ing at  dinner,  will  hand  you  a  plate  with  one  hand  and  fan 
themselves  with  the  other. 

The  Chinese  women  are  generally  below  the  middle 
stature,  not  well  formed,  being  very  narrow  across  the 


28o  CHINA 

shoulders  and  hips  ;  their  complexion  and  features  are  the 
same  as  those  of  the  men  ;  but  their  countenances  are 
totally  devoid  of  expression  or  intelligence.  Amongst 
the  lower  orders,  the  dress  differs  but  little  from  that  of 
the  men,  as  each  sex  wear  trousers  equally  wide  and  long, 
the  only  difference  in  attire  being  that  the  jacket  of  a 
woman  reaches  below  the  knees,  whilst  that  of  a  man 
comes  only  to  his  middle.  The  women  wear  the  same 
sort  of  bamboo  large  straw  hat  as  the  men,  and  those  who 
are  uncrippled  and  can  afford  shoes,  wear  the  same  kind  as 
the  men  use  j  but  the  females  whose  feet  are  deformed  in- 
variably wear  a  covering  either  of  silk  or  cotton  on  their 
legs,  whilst  their  feet  are  encased  in  embroidered  and 
spangled  shoes.  The  married  women  draw  the  hair  up  from 
the  face  into  a  topknot  at  the  crown  of  the  head,  where  it  is 
arranged  in  numberless  bows ;  these  they  ornament  and 
bedeck  either  with  artificial  flowers,  or  silver  filigree  pins  six 
inches  in  length  ;  these  pins  they  place  in  the  hair  so  as  to 
stick  out,  like  horns,  on  either  side  of  the  head  ;  when  not 
arranged  in  this  style,  the  hair  is  plaited  into  a  tail,  exactly 
like  the  men.  The  widows  and  unmarried  females  wear  the 
front  part  of  the  hair  combed  over  the  forehead,  and  cut  short, 
looking  exactly  like  an  English  charity  boy.  The  head-dress 
and  ornaments  of  all  classes  closely  resemble  each  other,  the 
only  difference  being  in  the  quality  of  the  artificial  flowers 
worn  by  the  higher  orders,  who  also  indulge  in  the  most 
expensive  jade  stone  enamelled  and  silver  pins  set  with 
pearls. 


DRESS  281 

The  women  of  all  ranks  in  China  are  remarkably  fond  of 
trinkets  and  wear  as  many  jade  stone  and  silver  rings, 
bracelets  and  anklets  as  they  can  afford  or  obtain ;  but  gold 
is  never  manufactured  into  trinkets  for  their  own  use,  as  it 
is  not  worn  by  them,  from  a  superstition  which  prevails 
among  them,  that  the  woman  who  wears  golden  ornaments 
can  never  become  a  mother,  or  retain  her  husband's  affec- 
tions. 

The  materials  used  by  the  lower  classes  for  their  cloth- 
ing is  glazed  cotton  of  native  manufacture  and  grass-cloth, 
of  coarse  fabric ;  whilst  the  families  of  the  mandarins  and 
wealthy  are  clad  in  the  richest  silks,  figured  crapes  and 
embroidered  satins,  the  dresses  being  as  magnificent  as  rich 
texture  and  brilliant  colours  can  make  them.  The  Chinese 
women  never  wear  linen  next  the  person ;  the  under  jacket 
being  made  of  crape,  with  tight,  long  sleeves,  which  is  em- 
broidered around  the  throat  and  wrists ;  over  this  they  wear 
another  jacket,  which  is  made  either  of  flowered  satin  or 
crape,  the  sleeves  being  very  wide  and  short,  reaching  only 
to  the  wrist;  an  embroidered  border  encircles  the  bottom  of 
the  jacket  and  sleeves;  the  border  is  three  inches  in  depth 
and  is  of  a  different  coloured  silk  or  crape  to  that  of  which 
the  jacket  is  made,  the  embroidery  being  in  gold  or  various 
coloured  silks.  The  trousers  are  exceedingly  wide  and  long, 
being  embroidered  round  the  ankle  in  a  similar  manner  to 
the  jacket  border,  but  not  to  correspond  or  match  with  it 
either  in  colour  or  embroidery.  The  principal  object  con- 
sidered in  the  toilette  of  a  Chinese  elegante  appears  to  be 


282  CHINA 

the  combination  of  as  great  a  diversity  of  colours  and 
variety  of  embroidery  as  practicable,  every  article  of  attire 
being  of  a  different  colour  ;  over  the  trousers  the  wife  wears 
a  rich  satin  petticoat  very  handsomely  embroidered,  which 
reaches  to  the  heels  ;  and  this  portion  of  the  dress  can  only 
be  worn  by  the  wife,  never  being  adopted,  or  permitted  to 
be  used,  either  by  handmaids  or  unmarried  daughters  of 
mandarins.  The  ladies  do  not  wear  stockings,  but  their 
ankles  are  bandaged  either  with  red  or  black  ribbon  :  the 
shoes  have  heels  about  an  inch  high,  and  the  uppers  are 
very  elaborately  embroidered  in  gold  and  silks,  being  bound 
round  at  the  top  with  figured  gold  tinsel.  Like  the  men 
the  females  of  all  classes  wear  under  their  jackets  a  silken 
girdle,  to  which  is  invariably  attached  an  embroidered  bag, 
which  contains  their  tobacco  and  pipe ;  the  fan  is  also  in 
general  use  and  requisition,  and  this  article  is  either 
embroidered  or  made  of  painted  feathers  or  silk,  and  is  of 
an  octagon,  oblong,  round,  or  pointed  form,  which  does  not 
fold  up. 

Infants  and  children  of  all  classes  are  invariably  dressed 
in  jacket  and  trousers,  the  materials  being  the  only 
variation,  which  are  always  in  accordance  with  the 
wealth  of  the  parents.  Male  children  have  their  heads 
shaved,  leaving  two  circular  spots  of  hair,  one  on  each  side 
of  the  head,  before  the  ears ;  this  is  allowed  to  grow  and  is 
then  plaited  into  tails.  At  eight  years  of  age  the  hair  is 
permitted  to  grow  on  the  crown  of  the  head,  the  remaining 
portion  being  closely  shaved  j  the  hair  is  then  plaited  into  a 


DRESS  283 

tail,  as  soon  as  the  hair  is  sufficiently  long.  The  hair  of 
the  female  children  is  allowed  to  grow  when  they  are  two 
years  of  age ;  it  is  then  drawn  from  the  face,  and  plaited 
into  a  tail  at  the  back  of  the  head  :  at  eight  years  of  age,  the 
hair  is  turned  up  (that  is  the  technical  expression  used  by 
ladies),  being  dressed  in  innumerable  bows  at  the  top  of 
their  little  pates,  and  decorated  with  flowers  and  ornaments 
of  all  descriptions. 

The  Chinese,  like  all  Eastern  nations,  attach  great  value 
to  sumptuous  clothing  and  a  display  of  jewellery ;  but  there 
is  not  a  nation  in  the  universe  which  respects  the  accom- 
paniments of  wealth,  rank,  and  station,  as  do  the  inhabitants 
of  the  Celestial  Empire. 


AMUSEMENTS 

J.  DYER  BALL 

THE  Chinese,  though  a  hard-working  and  industri- 
ous people,  are  not  behind  other  nations  in  their 
love  of  amusements,  and  enter  with  great  zest 
and  gusto  into  the  enjoyment  of  them,  most  heartily  assist- 
ing in  the  French  sense  of  the  term,  at  shows,  processions, 
etc.  It  needs  but  a  saunter  through  the  crowded  and  busy 
streets  of  a  Chinese  city  to  see  that,  though  there  is  much 
bustle  and  unceasing  toil,  there  is,  on  the  other  hand,  an  un- 
failing provision  for  the  relaxation  of  the  tired  workers 
and  the  delectation  of  the  younger  members  of  society. 
Theatres  are  crowded,  though  the  performances  last  for 
long  weary  hours,  if  not  days.  The  various  birthdays  of 
the  gods,  or  religious  festivals,  are  hailed  with  delight,  for 
then  the  streets  are  matted  over  and  hung  with  puppets, 
gorgeously  dressed  in  mediaeval  costume,  representing  his- 
torical scenes  ;  while  glittering  chandeliers,  ablaze  with  light, 
shed  a  brilliant  radiance  on  the  erewhile  gloomy  streets  and 
transform  them  into  a  dazzling  vision  of  light.  All  these  il- 
luminated streets  converge  to  one  centre,  where,  in  front  of 
the  temple  in  honour  of  whose  god  the  exhibition  is  being 
held,  a  grand  temporary  structure,  towering  in  height  above 
all  the  other  surrounding  buildings,  is  erected,  gorgeous 


~fc 


AMUSEMENTS  285 

with  painted  scenes  in  many-coloured  hues,  brilliant  with 
clusters  of  crystal  lights,  and  all  the  magnificence  of  cere- 
monial, gaudy  show,  and  paraphernalia  of  heathen  worship. 
Here  all  the  grandeur  is  centred,  radiating  out  through  all 
the  surrounding  streets,  and  here  it  is  that  the  crowd  is  at 
its  thickest — a  compact  mass,  open-mouthed,  gazing  to  their 
heart's  content,  enjoying  to  the  full  all  the  entrancing  sights, 
the  celestial  music  of  clashing  cymbals,  twanging  guitars, 
harsh  flageolets  and  shrill  flutes. 

The  annual  Regattas  of  the  Dragon  Boat  Feast  give  an 
outing  to  many  a  child  and  lady,  who,  attired  in  their  holi- 
day best,  line  the  banks  of  the  rivers,  and  watch  the  narrow 
snake-like  boats  dashing  up  and  down  in  impromptu  races 
and  spurts  with  their  rivals  from  neighbouring  villages. 

Another  great  outing  is  that  on  the  day  for  Ascending 
on  High ;  many  who  can  afford  the  time  go  to  the  summit 
of  some  high  mountain  or  lofty  hill,  in  remembrance  of  the 
deliverance  of  a  family  in  olden  times  from  destruction  by 
a  similar  action. 

The  Full  Moon  Festival  is  kept  gaily,  when  indigestible 
moon-cakes  are  seen  at  all  the  confectioners'  stalls  and 
shops.  Every  boat  hangs  out  one  or  more  tasteful  paper 
lanterns,  which,  suspended  from  bamboo  poles,  make  a  gen- 
eral illumination  over  the  dark  waters  of  the  deep  and 
murky  river,  and,  overhead,  the  full-orbed  moon,  in  harvest 
splendour,  shines  down  from  the  clear  sky  on  a  scene  of 
tropical,  Oriental  beauty.  The  faint  glimmer  of  the  tiny 
craft  is  eclipsed  anon  by  boats,  all  ablaze  with  one  glow  of 


286  CHINA 

light  from  innumerable  lamps.  These  larger  vessels  slowly 
float  down  the  stream  in  the  distance. 

Visits  to  flower-gardens  give  a  variety  to  the  monotony 
of  every-day  life,  and  even  the  sombre  worship  at  the  tombs, 
after  the  prescribed  ceremonials  are  through,  is  transformed 
into  pleasant  picnics  and  happy  family  reunions. 

Besides  these  outdoor  entertainments,  there  are  different 
games  of  cards,  dominoes,  chess,  etc.,  the  two  former  be- 
ing almost  invariably  associated  with  gambling.  Numerous 
other  games  are  played,  whose  whole  end  and  object  is 
gambling  pure  and  simple,  amongst  which  may  be  noted 
games  with  dice,  encounters  with  fighting  crickets  and 
quail  matches.  The  jeunesse  dor'ee  of  a  literary  or  artistic 
taste  also  amuse  themselves  and  while  away  the  passing 
hour  by  wine  parties,  at  which  capping  of  verses  takes 
place.  Their  leisure  moments  are  sometimes  beguiled  by 
making  pen-and-ink  sketches  on  fans,  or  inscriptions  on 
the  same  articles  of  necessity  for  a  warm  climate,  or  by  the 
composition  of  antithetical  sentences,  which  are  inscribed 
on  scrolls  and  presented  as  souvenirs  to  friends. 

Outdoor  sports  are  not  in  vogue  with  the  Chinaman. 
When  one  sees  anything  approaching  the  kind  going  on, 
there  is  almost  sure  to  be  some  utilitarian  object  in  view,  as 
in  archery,  which  is  practiced  for  the  military  examinations. 
The  gymnastic  exercises  with  heavy  weights  are  undertaken 
with  the  same  object.  Very  rarely  one  may  see  a  few 
young  Celestial  swells,  paddling  together  in  a  canoe,  but 
this  is  uncommon  enough  not  to  be  a  typical  sight. 


AMUSEMENTS  287 

As  to  the  outdoor  games,  the  most  violent  in  which 
adults  engage  is  shuttlecock.  A  more  sedentary  pastime  is 
that  of  flying  kites  in  which  grown-up  men  indulge,  while 
youngsters  stand  by  and  look  on.  Very  ingenious  are  the 
different  forms  and  shapes  of  kites  made,  and  some,  like 
birds,  are  so  well  manipulated,  when  in  the  air,  as  to  de- 
ceive one  at  first  sight. 

Blind  singing-girls  perambulate  the  streets  at  night,  ready 
to  accompany  their  song  with  the  guitar  (p'ei-p'a) ;  itinerant 
ballad-singers  of  the  other  sex  can  be  hired  by  the  day. 
Story-tellers  are  pretty  sure  to  get  a  good  crowd  round  them 
while  interesting  episodes  in  Chinese  history  are  recounted 
to  their  listeners.  In  any  open  space,  or  lining  the  broader 
streets  are  peep-shows,  the  more  crude  native  population 
being  replaced  in  many  cases,  during  the  last  twenty  or 
thirty  years,  by  stereoscopic  views.  Jugglers  and  Punch 
and  Judy  shows,  performing  monkeys,  as  well  as  gymnasts, 
are  always  certain  of  a  circle  of  admiring  spectators. 

The  ladies  join  in  a  few  of  these  amusements,  but  are 
debarred  from  the  great  majority  of  those  which  cannot  be 
enjoyed  in  the  privacy  of  their  dwellings.  They  kill  time 
by  playing  cards  and  dominoes,  occasionally  going  to  the 
theatre,  gossiping  and  visiting — when  they  are  quickly  car- 
ried in  closed  chairs  through  the  narrow  streets,  invisible  to 
every  one,  and  every  one  and  everything  nearly  invisible  to 
them. 

As  to  children's  toys  and  sports,  though  one  writer  in  an 
English  periodical  very  sapiently  (?)  remarks  that  there  are 


288  CHINA 

no  toys  in  China,  yet  it  needs  but  a  few  steps  in  a  Chinese 
city  in  the  South,  at  all  events,  to  show  the  absurdity  of  the 
statement.  Besides  taking  their  share  in  the  enjoyments  of 
their  elders,  they  have  more  especially  for  their  benefit, 
tops,  paper  lanterns  in  the  shape  of  fish,  iron  marbles,  toy 
cannon  and  weapons,  and  a  thousand  and  one  different 
games  and  toys  with  which  the  ingenuity  of  the  caterers  for 
their  amusement  fills  the  toyshops  and  covers  the  stalls  at 
the  street  corners. 

The  Chinese  are  essentially  a  noisy  people — all  Orientals 
are.  Spending  so  much  time  out-of-doors  has  doubtless 
something  to  do  with  their  noisy  way  of  talking ;  for  they 
will  shout  at  each  other  when  a  quiet  whisper  would  serve 
their  purpose  as  well  if  not  better.  Their  music,  much  of 
it  at  least,  is  noisy — what  with  clash  of  cymbals,  clang  of 
gongs,  the  loud-sounding  drum,  the  harsh  untuned  flageo- 
lets and  the  shrill  flutes,  and  the  entire  absence  of  piano 
effects.  One  must  suppose  that  to  them  the  constant  forte 
and  fortissimo  is  as  entertaining  as  the  softest  and  sweetest 
song  without  words  is  to  our  ears.  And  the  crackers — the 
firecrackers — here  is  a  perfect  apotheosis  of  noise.  A  per- 
fect carnival  of  uproar  and  deafening  sound  is  produced, 
especially  at  New  Year's  time,  by  their  almost  continuous 
discharge,  for  at  that  joyous  season  a  perfect  pandemonium 
reigns  rampant.  Woe  betide  the  foreigner  in  a  native  city 
then,  or  even  in  the  British  colony  of  Hong  Kong  itself, 
where  their  discharge  is  limited  to  a  certain  period  of 
shorter  duration  than  the  unrestrained  jubilation  of  the  un- 


AMUSEMENTS  289 

fettered  Chinese  is  content  with.  Sleep  is  almost  out  of 
the  question  at  night  while  house  after  house  and  shop  after 
shop  lets  off  its  string  of  firecrackers,  the  rattling  of  the 
small  artillery  being  accentuated  by  a  louder  boom  every 
little  while  from  a  bomb  of  larger  size.  The  only  grain  of 
comfort  to  the  foreigner,  while  this  uproarious  din  is  in  full 
swing,  is  that  the  foul  spirits  of  disease  are  exorcised  by  the 
plentiful  supply  of  sulphur  fumes  floating  in  the  air  and 
penetrating  into  every  nook  and  cranny.  His  matter-of- 
fact  nature  refuses  to  believe  that  the  monotonous  fusillade 
of  crackers  will  put  to  flight  the  fell  and  foul  spirits  that 
love  to  lurk  about  the  haunts  of  men  :  For  such  is  the 
supposed  rationale  of  their  use  by  the  Chinese ;  therefore, 
at  all  joyous  events — such  as  marriages,  processions,  saints' 
days  and  feasts — immunity  from  ill  has  to  be  purchased  by 
their  explosion.  In  the  Hong  Shan  district  they  are  even 
discharged  at  the  grave  after  the  burial. 


FESTIVALS 

SIR  HENRY  ARTHUR  BLAKE 

THERE  is  one  sport  in  which  the  adult  Chinaman 
shines.  Each  year  in  the  month  of  June  the 
boatmen  and  fishermen  hold  a  festival  at  which 
the  great  feature  is  the  dragon-boat  races.  The  dragon- 
boat  is  about  ninety  feet  long  and  only  wide  enough  to 
admit  of  two  men  with  paddles  sitting  side  by  side  on  each 
thwart.  In  this  boat  from  sixty  to  eighty  men  are  seated, 
while  in  the  centre  stands  a  man  with  a  drum  or  gong  be- 
fore him  on  which  he  beats  the  time.  A  man  stands  at  the 
stern  with  a  long  steering  paddle,  and  a  boy  sits  in  front 
with  two  lines  in  his  hands  attached  to  a  large  dragon's 
head  with  which  the  bow  is  adorned,  and  which  moves 
from  side  to  side  as  the  lines  are  pulled.  Two  contending 
boats  paddle  to  the  starting-buoy  and  at  a  signal  they  are 
off.  The  frantic  encouragement  of  the  men  beating  time, 
the  furious  but  rhythmic  splash  of  nearly  two  hundred 
paddles  in  the  onrushing  boats,  and  the  natural  movement 
from  side  to  side  of  the  brightly  coloured  dragons'  heads, 
is  one  of  the  finest  and  most  inspiriting  sights  imaginable. 
Every  muscle  is  strained,  and  no  sport  on  earth  shows  for 
the  time  a  more  tremendous  effort  of  muscular  energy. 
Sometimes  in  the  excitement  of  the  race  the  boats  collide, 


FESTIVALS  291 

in  which  event  the  race  must  be  run  again,  for  the  mixture 
of  paddles  makes  it  impossible  to  disentangle  without  a  dead 
stop.  But  such  a  contretemps  leads  to  no  mischief  or 
quarrelling.  The  accident  is  treated  good-humouredly  all 
round,  and  it  only  means  another  race.  On  the  river  at 
Canton  literally  thousands  of  boats  make  a  line  to  see  the 
races  paddled.  There  are  no  police  and  no  stewards  of  the 
course,  but  no  boat  ever  attempts  to  break  the  line  or  cause 
any  obstruction. 

The  Chinese  delight  in  festivals  and  spectacular  effects, 
in  which  they  give  proof  of  organizing  capacity.  A  very 
striking  festival  was  that  in  honour  of  the  son  of  the  god 
of  war,  held  at  Macao  every  tenth  year  in  the  intercalary 
moon.  It  was  a  guild  procession — watchmakers,  tailors, 
shoemakers,  etc.  Each  guild  had  carried  before  it  a  great 
triangular,  richly  embroidered  banner,  also  an  umbrella  of 
honour.  Many  had  also  a  long  piece  of  embroidery  carried 
horizontally  on  poles.  There  were  ornamental  chairs  of 
the  usual  type,  some  with  offerings  to  the  gods,  some  with 
wooden  drums.  Each  guild  had  its  band;  some  string 
bands,  some  reeds  and  gongs,  some  Chinese  viols  and 
mandolins,  the  latter  being  frequently  played  while  held 
over  the  head  or  resting  on  the  back  of  the  neck.  Each 
guild  marched  two  and  two  behind  the  band,  the  members 
being  dressed  in  mauve  silk  coats  and  broad  red  or  yellow 
sash  tied  round  the  waist  with  richly  embroidered  ends 
down  each  leg.  The  watchmakers'  guild  all  carried  watches 
on  the  right  breast.  Children,  richly  dressed  in  mediaeval 


292  CHINA 

costume,  were  mounted  on  caparisoned  ponies,  and  some 
guilds  had  cars  on  which  were  allegorical  groups  of  children. 
In  some  cases,  by  an  ingenious  arrangement  of  an  iron 
frame,  a  child  held  a  sword  at  length  which,  apparently, 
pierced  another  child  through  back  and  breast.  The  variety 
of  these  groups  was  very  great.  From  time  to  time  the 
procession  stopped,  and  then  the  children  were  taken  down 
for  a  rest,  the  iron  frames  being  disconnected  from  their 
easily  detachable  sockets.  In  the  meantime  each  group 
was  attended  by  men  who  held  umbrellas  over  the  children 
to  protect  them  from  the  sun. 

Each  guild  had  its  attendant  coolies  carrying  stools,  and 
when  the  procession  stopped  the  members  at  once  sat  down, 
starting  up  at  once  on  the  sound  of  a  gong  that  regulated 
the  halting  and  starting,  when  the  stools  were  taken  up  by 
the  coolies. 

The  procession  finished  with  a  dragon  carried  by  twenty- 
six  men.  It  was  a  hundred  and  forty  feet  long,  the  back 
of  green  and  silver  scales,  the  sides  being  stripes  of  red, 
green,  pinks  and  yellow  silk.  The  dragon  was  preceded 
by  a  man  who  danced  before  it  with  a  large  ball  represent- 
ing the  moon.  At  this  the  dragon  made  dashes  from  one 
side  of  the  street  to  the  other,  but  was  staved  off  by  another 
who  carried  a  ball  surrounded  by  gilt  rays.  This  probably 
represented  the  sun  saving  the  moon  from  being  swallowed 
by  the  dragon,  as  it  is  supposed  to  take  place  in  an  eclipse. 
The  dragon  went  along  the  street  with  sinuous  rushes  from 
side  to  side.  Where  there  was  room  it  wound  round  and 


FESTIVALS  293 

round,  but  uncoiled  on  the  touch  upon  the  tail  of  the  gilt 
ball  with  the  golden  rays.  The  procession  took  an  hour 
and  a  half  to  pass  a  given  point.  The  most  perfect  order 
prevailed,  the  crowd  keeping  a  clear  space.  At  the  finish 
each  guild  went  to  its  own  district,  and  the  decorations  were 
carefully  stowed  away  for  future  use. 

Such  a  festival  is,  of  course,  a  local  holiday ;  but  the 
only  legal  Chinese  holidays  are  at  the  New  Year,  when  all 
business  is  suspended.  The  viceroy  puts  his  seal  away  ; 
the  governor  and  the  magistrate  follow  suit ;  the  merchant 
closes  his  place  of  business  and  squares  his  books  while  his 
employees  take  the  opportunity  to  revisit  their  homes  in 
the  country.  The  shopkeeper  generally  has  a  feast  for  all 
his  people,  at  the  conclusion  of  which  he  makes  a  speech, 
wishing  each  and  all  a  "  Happy  New  Year,"  in  certain 
cases  adding  "  and  I  hope  that  you  and  you,"  mentioning 
the  names,  "  will  obtain  good  situations."  This  is  a 
delicate  intimation  to  the  persons  named  that  their  services 
are  dispensed  with.  In  ordinary  Chinese  business  affairs 
all  accounts  are  closed  and  balanced  and  all  debts  paid  at 
the  New  Year. 

In  Hong  Kong  the  cessation  from  business  lasts  for  ten 
days.  At  this  time  booths  are  erected  on  either  side  of 
several  streets  in  the  Chinese  quarter,  on  which  are  dis- 
played everything  that  appeals  to  the  fancy  of  the  crowds 
with  which  the  streets  are  thronged  day  and  night.  There 
is  an  enormous  sale  of  a  white  bell-shaped  flower,  some- 
thing like  a  large  erica,  known  as  the  New  Year  flower ; 


294  CHINA 

goldfish  in  glass  globes  are  a  favourite  purchase,  and  on 
the  stalls  rigged  up  under  cover  are  thousands  of  articles  to 
suit  the  fancy  of  all  classes.  The  heterogeneous  stocks-in- 
trade  are  evidently  got  together  by  roving  pedlars  or  col- 
lectors, who  find  their  annual  harvest  at  New  Year.  Here 
may  be  purchased  everything,  from  a  piece  of  bronze  or 
porcelain  to  a  small  clay  figure,  of  which  a  dozen  may  be 
bought  for  a  couple  of  cents.  Sometimes  an  article  of  real 
value  may  be  picked  up  by  a  seeker  after  second-hand 
chances,  while  eager  children  spend  their  cents  in  smaller 
investments ;  but  the  annual  bazaar  has  one  peculiarity  that 
speaks  well  for  the  masses  of  the  Chinese  people.  In  all 
the  thousands  of  articles  and  pictures  exhibited  for  sale 
there  is  not  to  be  seen  the  slightest  indication  of  even  a 
suspicion  of  immodesty. 

Over  every  door  is  now  found  a  small  ornament  of  pea- 
cock's feathers,  that  being  a  lucky  emblem.  The  social 
ceremonies  are  many  and  elaborate.  New  Year  visits  of 
congratulation  are  paid ;  the  family  graves  are  visited  and 
due  honours  paid  to  the  dead ;  and  presents  are  offered  and 
accepted.  During  the  holidays  immense  quantities  of  fire- 
crackers are  exploded,  a  string  costing  many  dollars  being 
sometimes  hung  from  an  upper  balcony,  the  explosion  of 
the  crackers,  with  loud  sounding  bombs  at  intervals,  lasting 
for  several  minutes,  and  filling  the  street  with  apparently 
the  sharp  crackle  of  musketry  and  the  boom  of  heavy  guns. 
At  the  end  of  the  festival  the  streets  are  filled  with  the 
vermilion  paper  that  covered  the  exploded  fireworks. 


FESTIVALS  295 

Next  to  the  New  Year's  fair,  the  most  interesting  study 
in  Hong  Kong  was  the  crowds  who  came  down  from 
Canton  and  the  outlying  districts  of  Kwangtung  province 
for  the  annual  race-meeting — a  European  institution  that 
flourishes  at  every  coast  port  in  China,  the  horses  being 
hardy  little  Mongolian  ponies  and  the  sport  excellent.  Dur- 
ing the  three  days'  racing  it  was  the  custom  practically  to 
allow  a  Saturnalia,  and  the  police  closed  their  eyes  to 
offences  against  the  gambling  laws,  only  pouncing  upon 
faked  pu-chee  boxes,  loaded  dice,  or  other  unfair  instru- 
ments of  gambling.  On  the  race-course  these  gamblers 
plied  their  trade  between  the  races,  and  afforded  an  oppor- 
tunity of  seeing  the  most  diverse  and  curious  games  of 
chance  and  skill. 


FEAST  OF  LANTERNS 

JOHN  HENRT  GRAT 

THE  fifteenth  day  of  the  eighth  month  is  specially 
set  apart  for  the  worship  of  the  moon.  This 
festival  is  known  by  foreigners  as  the  Feast  of 
Lanterns,  and  takes  place  at  night,  when  families  wor- 
ship the  moon  on  the  roofs  of  their  houses  and  in  their 
ancestral  halls.  On  the  altars  erected  there  are  arranged 
offerings  of  fowls,  pork  and  cake.  While  these  are  being 
offered  the  worshippers  perform  the  kow-tow,  and  gongs, 
tom-toms  and  drums  are  beaten.  On  the  tops  of  the 
houses,  long  poles  bearing  lanterns  and  banners  of  various 
devices  and  mottoes  are  erected.  The  lanterns  are  some- 
times kept  burning  during  the  greater  part  of  the  night. 
The  ships  and  boats  riding  at  anchor  in  the  rivers  are  gaily 
decorated  and  illuminated,  the  festival  being  very  popular 
with  the  nautical  population.  Canton,  seen  from  an  emi- 
nence during  the  Feast  of  Lanterns,  presents  a  very  striking 
appearance,  the  illumination  extending  over  the  whole  city 
and  neighbourhood.  As  at  all  festivals  in  China,  there  is 
much  eating  and  drinking.  For  several  days  before,  the 
confectioners'  shops  are  stocked  with  moon-cakes  for  which 
there  is  a  great  demand.  They  are  circular  in  form,  so  as 
to  represent  the  orb  of  night,  and  are  ornamented  with  all 


FEAST  OF  LANTERNS  297 

sorts  of  devices.  Another  custom  is  the  erection  in  the 
squares  in  front  of  the  large  temples  and  guilds  of  pagodas 
from  seven  to  ten  feet  high  and  filled  with  fire-wood.  When 
the  hour  of  worship  has  come,  the  fuel  is  set  on  fire,  and 
the  blaze  is  kept  up  by  fresh  supplies  for  upwards  of  three 
hours.  The  flames  burst  forth  through  small  apertures  on 
each  side,  and  at  the  top,  which  is  not  covered  in.  From 
a  small  platform  near  it  seven  or  eight  men  by  turns  throw 
saltpetre  into  the  flames.  Gold  and  silver  papers,  repre- 
senting ingots,  are  also  thrown  in  as  offerings  to  the  goddess 
of  the  moon.  As  fresh  fuel  is  added,  the  men  in  charge 
run  round  the  burning  pagoda  fanning  the  flames  through 
the  apertures,  shouting  loudly,  and,  in  the  lurid  glare,  pre- 
senting a  sufficiently  wild  and  barbarous  appearance. 

Electro-biology  is  practiced  to  a  great  extent  at  this  festi- 
val. A  person  willing  to  be  operated  upon  is  placed  in  the 
rays  of  the  moon.  He  has  to  stand  leaning  his  forehead  on 
the  top  of  a  pole  which  he  grasps  with  his  hands,  and  which 
is  placed  slantwise,  the  other  hand  resting  on  the  ground. 
Burning  incense-sticks  are  then  waved  over  his  head  and 
about  his  body,  the  operators — there  are  generally  two  or 
three  of  them — repeating  prayers  in  a  low  tone  to  the  god- 
dess of  the  moon.  In  the  course  of  half  an  hour  the  mes- 
merized person  falls  down.  He  is  then  raised,  and  placed 
upon  his  feet,  and  made  to  go  through  a  variety  of  move- 
ments at  the  will  of  the  operator. 

What  the  goddess  of  the  moon  is  to  the  Chinese,  Ashto- 
reth  seems  to  have  been,  in  ancient  times,  to  the  Sidonians. 


298  CHINA 

As  the  moon  is  regarded  by  the  former  as  the  correlative 
female  divinity  to  the  sun,  Ashtoreth  was  looked  upon  by 
the  latter  as  the  correlative  female  divinity  to  Baal,  the  Sun 
God.  It  is  not  unreasonable  to  suppose  that  a  reference  is 
made  to  Ashtoreth  under  the  title  of  "queen  of  heav'en  "  in 
the  prophecy  of  Jeremiah  (vii.  18,  xliv.  17) ;  and  from  these 
passages  we  learn  that  to  the  "  queen  of  heaven  "  incense 
was  burned,  cakes  were  offered  and  libations  were  poured 
out — rites  which  are  at  the  present  day  observed  by  the 
Chinese  in  their  worship  of  the  moon.  The  Chinese  have 
a  legend  of  their  own  to  account  for  their  worship  of  the 
moon.  On  the  fifteenth  day  of  the  eighth  month  of  the 
first  year  of  his  reign,  the  emperor  Ming  Wong  was  walk- 
ing in  the  grounds  of  his  palace  attended  by  one  of  his 
priests.  The  emperor,  who  was  much  given  to  astrolog- 
ical studies,  asked  his  companion  if  he  could  inform  him 
of  what  material  the  moon  was  made.  The  priest,  by  way 
of  reply,  asked  his  royal  master  if  he  would  like  to  visit  the 
moon.  The  emperor  said  he  would,  and  thereupon  the 
priest  threw  his  staff  into  the  air.  The  staff  became  a 
bridge,  and  Ming  Wong  and  his  companion  passed  over  it. 
They  found  the  moon  to  be  a  region  of  vast  palaces,  beauti- 
ful flowers  and  fair  women.  On  their  way  back  the  priest 
requested  his  majesty,  who  had  his  lute  with  him — an  in- 
strument which  he  was  noted  for  playing  with  remarkable 
skill — to  enliven  their  way  with  its  melodious  strains.  The 
music  filled  the  air,  and  the  inhabitants  of  Hanking  and  the 
surrounding  territory,  believing  that  rejoicing  angels  were 


FEAST  OF  LANTERNS  299 

traversing  the  realms  of  space,  ran  to  the  tops  of  their  houses 
to  do  them  homage.  At  the  request  of  the  priest,  his  maj- 
esty showered  down  cash  upon  the  votaries.  When  Ming 
Wong  was  once  more  in  his  palace,  his  adventure  seemed 
so  strange  that  he  concluded  it  was  a  dream  j  but  whilst 
he  was  persuading  himself  that  it  was  so,  an  official 
communication  was  laid  before  him.  It  came  from  the 
governor-general  of  the  province,  describing  certain  mar- 
vels which  had  taken  place  on  the  fifteenth  day  of  the 
month — celestial  music  had  been  heard  in  the  air,  and  cash 
had  fallen  from  heaven.  So  the  emperor  was  convinced 
that  he  had  visited  the  moon,  and  the  people  have  since 
continued  to  worship  her  on  the  night  on  which  Ming 
Wong  accomplished  his  marvellous  journey. 


HOTELS,  INNS  AND  RESTAURANTS 

JOHN  HENRT  GRAY 

RESTAURANTS,  hotels,  tea-saloons  and  soup- 
stalls  are  everywhere  numerous  throughout  the 
empire.  The  restaurants  are  generally  very  large 
establishments,  consisting  of  a  public  dining-room  and  sev- 
eral private  rooms.  Unlike  most  other  buildings,  they  con- 
sist of  two  or  three  stories.  The  kitchen  alone  occupies 
the  ground  floor ;  the  public  hall,  which  is  the  resort  of 
persons  in  the  humbler  walks  of  life,  is  on  the  first  floor, 
and  the  more  select  apartments  are  on  the  second  and  third 
floors.  The  public  room  is  immediately  at  the  head  of  the 
first  staircase,  and  is  resorted  to  by  all  who  require  a  cheap 
meal.  It  is  furnished  like  a  cafe,  with  tables  and  chairs,  a 
private  room  having  only  one  table  and  a  few  chairs  in  it. 
On  the  walls  of  all  the  apartments  are  placards,  by  which 
the  guests  are  admonished  not  to  lose  sight  of  their  um- 
brellas, fans,  articles  of  wearing  apparel,  etc.,  and  assured 
that  the  proprietor  does  not  hold  himself  responsible  in  case 
of  loss.  A  bill  of  fare  is  also  placed  in  each  room.  It 
probably  includes,  among  other  dishes,  birds'-nest  soup, 
sharks'  fins,  and  becbe  de  mer.  A  waiter  places  it  in  the 
hands  of  the  visitor  on  his  entering  the  establishment,  and 
when  he  has  made  his  selection  the  dishes  are  promptly 


HOTELS,  INNS  AND  RESTAURANTS    301 

served.  The  dinner  may  consist  of  ten  or  twenty  small 
dishes.  At  a  large  dinner-party  more  than  a  hundred  dishes 
are  sometimes  placed  on  the  table.  The  feast  is  begun  by 
the  host  or  principal  person  of  the  party  pouring  out  a  liba- 
tion— a  ceremony  which  is  in  truth  a  form  of  grace  before 
meals.  The  wine  cups  are  then  filled  and  the  guests,  bow- 
ing politely  to  one  another,  proceed  to  drink. 

The  first  course  consists  of  fruit,  such  as  oranges,  nuts 
and  almonds.  This  is  followed  by  various  kinds  of  soups 
and  stews,  which  with  their  inseparable  concomitants  are 
savoury  to  a  degree.  Between  each  course,  the  waiters, 
who  in  the  heat  of  summer  divest  themselves  of  the  greater 
portion  of  their  clothing,  supply  the  guests  with  pipes  of 
tobacco.  When  the  guests  have  taken  a  few  whiffs,  they 
find  the  next  course  awaiting  their  attention.  There  are 
various  wines :  in  this  country  they  would  be  called  spirit- 
uous liquors.  The  strongest,  which  is  a  decoction  of  rice, 
is  called  suee-thow.  Others  are  made  from  plums,  apples, 
pears,  litchis  and  roses.  The  custom  of  taking  wine  with 
each  other  is  strictly  observed  by  the  guests ;  and  it  is  not 
unusual  for  a  gentleman  to  show  politeness  by  using  his 
chop-sticks  to  place  a  portion  of  food  from  his  own  plate 
into  the  mouth  of  his  neighbour.  The  table  is  without  a 
cloth,  and  by  the  side  of  each  guest  there  is  placed  a  piece 
of  coarse  brown  paper,  which  he  uses  between  the  courses 
to  wipe  his  chop-sticks  and  his  lips.  As  oil  is  lavishly  used 
in  Chinese  cookery,  the  process  is  by  no  means  merely 
formal.  The  fowls,  ducks,  joints,  etc.,  are  all  carved  and 


302  CHINA 

cut  into  small  pieces  down-stairs  and  served  stewed,  an  ar- 
rangement rendered  necessary  by  the  all-prevailing  use  of 
spoons  and  chop-sticks. 

During  the  last  course  it  is  not  unusual  for  guests  to  in- 
dulge in  a  bacchanalian  game  of  chance  called  Chi-Moee. 
The  game,  which  is  accompanied  by  much  boisterous  mirth, 
is  played  between  two.  A  guest  holding  up  his  hand  sud- 
denly shows  so  many  fingers  extended,  and  his  antagonist 
must  simultaneously  guess  their  number.  Should  the  latter 
guess  wrong,  he  must  drink  a  cup  of  wine. 

When  dinner  is  ended  the  waiters  again  appear,  bearing 
towels,  which  I  purposely  refrain  from  calling  clean,  and 
copper  or  brazen  basins  filled  to  the  brim  with  hot  water,  so 
that  the  guests  may  wash  their  hands  and  faces.  Dipping 
it  into  the  hot  water  and  then  wringing  it,  the  waiter  pre- 
sents a  napkin  to  one  of  the  guests.  When  it  has  been 
used  by  him  it  is  again  dipped  into  the  basin  and  presented 
to  the  next. 

Besides  the  restaurants  there  are  numerous  soup-stalls  in 
the  principal  streets  and  squares  of  Chinese  cities.  At  these 
stalls  soups  and  patties  of  various  kinds  are  to  be  had  for  a 
small  sum  of  money  and  on  the  benches  round  them  men 
may  be  seen  enjoying  a  cheap  and  good  meal.  There  are 
also  other  restaurants  which  may  be  termed  pork  eating- 
houses,  and  which  are  resorted  to  by  gentlemen.  The  ar- 
rangements in  them  are  the  same  as  I  have  already 
described. 

The  hotels   in  China  are"  distinguished,  as  in  Europe,  by 


HOTELS,  INNS  AND  RESTAURANTS    303 

names  or  signs.  Thus,  in  Canton,  there  are  such  names  as 
the  Cum  Lee,  or  Golden  Profits ;  the  Cut-Shing,  or  Rank- 
Conferring  Hotel  j  the  Fuk-On,  or  Happiness  and  Peace 
Hotel ;  and  the  Cut-Sing,  or  Fortunate  Star.  The  hotels 
in  this  city  are  generally  very  lofty  buildings ;  and  as  usual 
with  shops  of  a  trade,  they  are  to  be  found  in  groups. 
Thus  the  Lune-heng  Kai  at  Canton  is  formed  by  two  rows 
of  hotels.  On  the  ground-floor  of  an  hotel  there  is  an 
apartment  for  the  proprietor  and  a  large  kitchen  where 
three  or  four  cooks  and  as  many  scullions  are  busily  em- 
ployed in  preparing  meats  and  washing  dishes.  The  first 
floor  contains  one  public  and  several  private  dining-rooms, 
and  the  second  floor  is  occupied  by  bedrooms.  The  bed- 
rooms are  divided  from  one  another  by  thin  wooden  parti- 
tions, and  a  conversation  conducted  even  in  a  subdued  tone 
can  be  heard  by  occupants  of  the  adjoining  chamber. 

The  dinners  served  up  in  these  hotels  are  usually  differ- 
ent from  those  one  gets  at  restaurants  and  consist  of  roast 
pork,  roast  duck,  boiled  fowl  and  rice,  or  fish  and  rice. 
Besides  the  large  hotels,  there  are  in  cities  and  towns 
smaller  hotels  called  Yin-fong,  and  in  the  country  wayside 
inns.  The  country  inns  are  very  humble  and  do  not  af- 
ford much  comfort.  In  the  northern  provinces  and 
Mongolia,  the  hotels  or  caravanseras  are  in  all  respects 
more  comfortable  than  those  in  the  southern  and  central 
provinces. 

In  the  large  cities  and  towns  there  are  public  buildings 
which  are  much  resorted  to  by  wealthy  travellers  and  by 


304  CHINA 

students  in  particular  who  have  come  to  attend  literary 
examinations.  Above  the  entrance-doors  of  these  estab- 
lishments are  sign-boards  with  Hak-yu  (Traveller's  Rest)  or 
Hit-yim  (Lodging-house)  inscribed  on  them.  These  build- 
ings are  very  much  larger  than  hotels,  and  differ  from  them 
in  this  respect,  that  the  lodger  is  obliged  to  provide  himself 
with  a  cook  and  a  body-servant,  whose  duty  it  is  to  furnish 
him  with  everything  he  may  require  without  any  reference 
whatever  to  the  proprietor.  Such  a  house  consists  of  so 
many  bedrooms,  and  attached  to  it  is  a  large  kitchen 
furnished  with  several  grates,  at  which  the  cooks  may  be 
seen  preparing  meals  for  their  respective  masters.  Gentle- 
men often  bring  their  wives  and  children  to  such  establish- 
ments, as  they  would  never  do  to  hotels.  The  Koong- 
Koon  are  establishments  of  the  same  kind  resorted  to  by 
civil  and  military  officers  only. 

Tea-saloons  are  also  very  numerous  in  cities  and  towns. 
Many  are  large  and  neatly  fitted  up.  Each  consists  of  two 
large  saloons  furnished  with  several  small  tables  and  stools. 
Upon  each  table  is  placed  a  tray,  containing  a  large  assort- 
ment of  cakes,  preserved  fruits  and  cups  of  tea.  A  cashier 
seated  behind  a  counter  at  the  door  of  the  saloon  receives 
the  money  from  the  guests  as  they  are  leaving  the  establish- 
ment. There  is  a  large  kitchen  attached  to  all  of  them 
where  cooks  remarkable  for  their  cleanliness  are  daily  en- 
gaged in  making  all  kinds  of  pastry.  These  tea-saloons  are 
much  visited  by  men  of  all  ranks.  Females,  however,  are 
not  allowed  to  resort  to  such  places  in  the  southern  provinces. 


HOTELS,  INNS  AND  RESTAURANTS    305 

I  Noticeable  among  the  restaurants  to  be  found  in  cities 
are  the  Kow-Yuk-Poo,  in  which  visitors  are  served  with 
dog's  and  cat's  flesh.  Each  restaurant  contains  only  one 
public  apartment.  The  approach  to  this  dining-room  is 
generally  through  the  kitchen,  where  cooks  may  be  seen 
standing  in  front  of  slow  fires  over  which  the  flesh  of  cats 
and  dogs  is  being  cooked.  The  flesh  is  cut  into  small 
pieces  and  fried  with  water-chestnuts  and  garlic  in  oil.  In 
the  windows  of  the  restaurants  dogs'  carcases  are  suspended, 
for  the  purpose,  I  suppose,  of  attracting  the  attention  of 
passengers. 

The  flesh  of  black  dogs  and  cats  is  generally  preferred, 
because  it  is  supposed  to  possess  more  nutriment  than  that 
of  cats  and  dogs  of  any  other  colour.  At  Ying-tong,  a 
suburban  district  of  Canton,  a  fair  is  held  at  which  dogs  are 
sold  for  food ;  and  in  one  of  the  streets  dogs  and  cats  are 
daily  exposed  for  sale.  At  the  commencement  of  summer 
a  ceremony  called  A-chee,  which  consists  in  eating  dog's 
flesh,  is  observed  throughout  the  empire  by  persons  of  all 
ranks.  Dog's  flesh  is  supposed  on  this  occasion  to  impart 
strength  to  the  body  and  also  to  serve  as  an  antidote 
against  summer  sicknesses  or  epidemics.  The  eating- 
houses  where  the  flesh  of  cats  and  dogs  is  usually  served 
up  are  at  this  time  crowded  with  visitors  and  many  of  the 
street  stalls  usually  spread  with  other  viands  are  covered 
with  what  are  doubtless  regarded  as  tempting  morsels  of 
dog's  flesh. 

The  flesh  of  rats  is  also  an  article  of  food.     In  a  street 


306  CHINA 

at  Canton,  named  Hing-loong  Kai,  where  there  are  many 
poulterers'  shops,  rats  are  exposed  for  sale  with  ducks,  geese 
and  fowls.  They  are  salted  and  dried,  and  eaten  both  by 
men  and  women.  The  women,  however,  who  eat  the 
flesh  of  these  animals  are  generally  those  who  are  becom- 
ing bald,  it  being  considered  by  the  Chinese  as  a  hair  re- 
storative. In  the  winter,  when  rats  are  in  season,  the  win- 
dows of  the  poulterers'  shops  in  the  street  which  I  have 
named  are  often  crowded  with  dried  rats.  The  consump- 
tion of  such  food  is  by  no  means  universal,  but  the  practice 
of  eating  rats  prevails  to  some  extent  in  different  parts  of 
the  empire. 

Floating-hotels  are  to  be  found  at  all  cities  and  towns  on 
the  banks  of  rivers  and  creeks.  They  are  large  boats  of 
special  construction  and  are  called  Chee-Tung-Teng.  As 
the  rivers  and  creeks  may  be  said  to  be  the  highways  of  the 
country,  these  boats  are  of  great  service  to  travellers.  The 
gates  of  cities  and  towns  are  invariably  closed  at  an  early 
hour  of  the  evening,  and  should  a  passenger-boat  arrive  at 
a  city  by  night,  the  passengers  would  be  unable  to  disem- 
bark until  the  next  morning  were  it  not  for  the  convenience 
of  these  floating-hotels. 

There  are  also  large  boats  on  the  Canton  River  called  by 
the  Chinese  Wang  Lau  and  by  the  foreigners  flower-boats. 
These  boats  are  neither  more  nor  less  than  floating-houses  j 
they  are  often  richly  carved  and  gilded.  They  are  illumi- 
nated by  chandeliers  of  crystal  and  lamps  and  by  night  pre- 
sent a  gay  and  animated  appearance.  In  the  evening  these 


HOTELS,  INNS  AND  RESTAURANTS    307 

boats  are  the  resort  of  citizens  who  are  disposed  to  make 
merry.  It  is  not  considered  decorous  for  a  Chinese  gen- 
tleman to  invite  friends  to  dinner  at  his  family  residence, 
excepting  on  the  marriage  of  a  son  or  daughter,  or  when 
honouring  the  natal  anniversary  of  a  member  of  his  family. 
He  therefore  issues  cards  of  invitation  to  his  friends  to 
meet  him  at  dinner  on  board  a  certain  flower-boat.  The 
dinner  is  cooked  in  a  large  floating-kitchen  anchored  near. 
At  such  banquets  there  are  invariably  a  number  of  public 
singing-women  attired  in  beautiful  garments  and  highly 
rouged. 


A  MANDARIN'S  DINNER  PARTY 

HENRT  CHARLES  SIRR 

AS  soon  as  the  whole  of  the  guests  are  assembled  tea 
is  handed  round  in  small  covered  cups,  which  are 
placed  on  silver  stands  shaped  like  a  boat,  and  are 
beautifully  chased  or  ornamented  with  filigree  work.     The 
cups,  on  the  occasion  now  referred  to,  were  of  that  antique 
porcelain  which   is  valued  most  exceedingly  for  its  rarity : 
the  china  is  as  thin  as  tissue  paper,  of  a  pure  white,  per- 
fectly transparent  and  ornamented  with  figures,  the  delicate 
tracery  and  painting  being  only  perceptible  when  the  vessel 
is  filled  with  liquid. 

After  the  tea  had  been  imbibed  and  a  little  talk  indulged 
in,  a  tribe  of  servants,  clad  in  long  white  grass-cloth  robes, 
entered  the  room,  drawing  back  the  silken  curtains  of  the 
doorway  leading  into  the  eating-room  ;  the  host  then  arose, 
begging  the  guests  to  enter  the  room,  where  a  humble  re- 
past had  been  prepared,  which  he  hoped  they  would  deign 
to  partake  of.  Now  began  another  battle ;  not  a  guest 
would  budge  from  the  room  until  the  host  preceded  them ; 
this  he  would  not  hear  of,  so  the  contest  was  decided  by 
the  host  being  placed  between  two  of  the  invited,  the  re- 
maining three  preceding  them  into  the  apartment  where  the 
repast  was  prepared.  We  found  the  table  laid  out  for  six 
persons,  and  nothing  could  have  been  in  better  taste,  or 


A  MANDARIN'S  DINNER  PARTY      309 

more  elegantly  arranged,  than  this  festive  board  of  a  man- 
darin of  the  Celestial  Empire  j  chairs  of  equal  size  and  form 
were  placed  round  the  table,  and  the  whole  party  acknowl- 
edged their  equality  by  taking  their  seats  at  the  same  mo- 
ment :  the  table  was  of  a  circular  shape,  and  on  it  was 
spread  a  silken  cover,  the  edges  being  bordered  with  an  em- 
broidery of  gold  and  silver ;  porcelain  jars,  of  exquisite 
form  and  brilliant  colours,  were  filled  with  the  choicest 
flowers  of  the  orange,  citron,  lemon,  camellia-japonica  and 
China  aster ;  these  flowers  being  so  disposed  in  the  jars  as 
to  form  various  patterns. 

Interspersed  between  these  ornaments  were  representa- 
tions of  animals,  the  framework  made  of  split  bamboo,  and 
covered  with  tuberoses,  jessamine  and  other  small  flowers, 
so  as  completely  to  conceal  the  frame  ;  the  eye  was  grati- 
fied with  these  unique  table  decorations,  whilst  the  nostrils 
were  regaled  with  the  delicious  perfume  of  the  many 
odoriferous  blossoms.  Various  descriptions  of  dried  spices, 
preserved  fruit  and  sweetmeats  were  tastefully  arranged  in 
carved  ivory  and  tortoise-shell  baskets,  whilst  pineapples, 
pumbelows,1  guavas,  mandarin  oranges,  leichees  and  ba- 
nanas were  placed  in  bowls  and  saucers  about  the  table 
with  due  regard  to  effect ;  it  would  be  impossible  to  describe 
the  exquisite  appearance  of  this  dinner-table,  loaded  with 
the  most  exquisite  flowers  and  the  luscious  fruits  of  China, 
the  variety  and  arrangement  of  the  colours  producing  a 
pleasingly  novel  effect  upon  a  European. 
1  Grape  fruit. 


310  CHINA 

All  the  viands  are  cut  into  small  square  pieces  and  served 
up  in  a  rich  gravy,  the  food  being  placed  in  bowls,  instead 
of  dishes,  but  these  bowls  are  arranged  on  the  dinner-table 
with  due  attention  to  order  and  effect,  the  largest  being 
placed  in  the  centre ;  the  surrounding  bowls  corresponding 
with  each  other  accurately  in  size,  pattern  and  shape.  The 
sauces,  such  as  oil,  soy,  vinegar  and  capers  were  placed  in 
small  bowls  which  stood  upon  silver  trays,  very  finely  em- 
bossed j  sam-shoo,1  both  hot  and  cold,  and  the  native  wine 
of  China  (which  resembles  in  flavour  weak  and  acid 
Madeira)  were  put  into  highly  chased  silver  pots  of  a 
slender  upright  form,  with  handles  and  spouts,  which  were 
dispersed  about  the  table  at  equal  distances.  Before  each 
person  was  placed  a  small  embossed  silver  cup,  about  two 
inches  high,  to  drink  the  sam-shoo  and  wine  from,  and  by 
the  side  of  each  of  these  elegantly  minute  tankards  was  an 
embroidered  silken  case,  containing  a  knife  and  chop- 
sticks ;  the  latter  were  of  ivory,  but  the  handles  of  the 
knives  were  richly  carved  and  composed  either  of  jade 
stone,  ivory,  sandalwood  or  chased  silver.  The  first 
course  was  served  up  on  antique  white  porcelain ;  a 
smaller  bowl  containing  boiled  rice,  and  an  empty  bowl 
being  placed  before  each  guest  to  eat  his  food  from  ;  this 
course  consisted  of  salted  and  highly  seasoned  meats,  of 
various  descriptions,  pounded  shrimps  and  other  fish 
moulded  into  the  shapes  of  various  animals,  there  was  a 
stew  of  sharks'  fins  and  beche  de  mer,  and  a  kind  of  soup, 
1  Sam-shoo  is  a  spirituous  liquor  which  is  extracted  from  rice. 


A  MANDARIN'S  DINNER  PARTY       311 

which  we  mistook  for  turtle,  but  afterwards  learned  that  it 
was  made  from  the  fresh  water  tortoise ;  the  Chinese  eat 
rice  with  these  rich  condiments  as  we  do  bread  and  vege- 
tables, and  which  in  a  slight  degree  corrects  the  luscious- 
ness  of  the  food.  The  natives  of  China  have  an  immense 
liking  for  all  gelatinous  substances  and  rich  sauces,  and 
although  the  meats  are  always  floating  in  rich  gravies,  a 
Chinese  ban  vivant  invariably  adds  oil,  frequently  soy, 
vinegar,  or  capers. 

It  has  often  been  asserted  that  earthworms  are  to  be 
found  at  the  tables  of  the  luxurious ;  this  statement  we  be- 
lieve to  be  incorrect,  but  we  saw  on  this  occasion  what 
might  easily  be  mistaken  for  the  creeping  things,  namely 
the  grubs  which  are  found  at  the  root  of  the  sugar-cane 
and  which  are  considered  a  delicious  morsel  by  the  Chinese 
epicure.  The  food,  as  before  stated,  was  cut  into  small 
square  pieces  before  coming  to  table,  and  a  portion  having 
been  put  into  each  guest's  bowl,  was  eaten  up  with  the 
chop-sticks ;  the  knife  being  only  used  to  divide  the  meat, 
when  a  piece  is  too  large  to  enter  the  mouth  conveniently  : 
some  folks  experience  great  difficulty  in  using  the  chop- 
sticks, but  we  must  confess  that  we  found  none,  but  used 
them  as  if  we  had  been  a  Chinaman  "  to  the  manner  born 
and  bred."  After  each  dish  a  small  quantity  of  warm 
sam-shoo  was  taken  and  occasionally  the  wine  was  im- 
bibed. We  must  not  omit  to  mention  that  the  Chinese 
custom  of  taking  wine  is  synonymous  with  the  European  ; 
the  host  rises  from  his  chair,  challenges  a  guest,  who  in 


312  CHINA 

his  turn  rises  also,  accepts  the  challenge,  the  parties  bow 
lowly  and  empty  the  cups,  reversing  them,  and  tapping 
with  them  on  the  thumb  nail  to  show  they  have  been  com- 
pletely emptied. 

The  next  course  was  served  up  on  coloured  porcelain 
and  consisted  of  variously  dressed  poultry  of  every  de- 
scription, cut  into  small  pieces  in  the  forms  of  animals  and 
birds  :  with  this  course  appeared  the  celebrated  birds'-nest 
soup,  which  is  made  from  the  gelatinous  lining  of  the 
swallows'  nest  and  tastes  like  unflavoured  calves'  feet 
jelly,  until  the  various  sauces  which  are  used  are  added, 
when  the  soup  becomes  exceedingly  piquant  and  palatable. 
The  succeeding  course  was  served  up  on  white  porcelain, 
with  a  green  dragon  portrayed  on  the  milky  ground ;  these 
beasts  had  but  four  claws,  as  dragons  having  five  claws  are 
only  allowed  to  be  used  by  the  Emperor.  This  course 
consisted  principally  of  water- fowl,  among  which  was  the 
mandarin  duck,  fattened  to  an  enormous  extent,  salted, 
dried  and  smoked ;  it  is  then  cut  into  small  pieces,  stewed 
in  a  rich  gravy  and  esteemed  a  great  delicacy  by  the 
Chinese ;  to  our  taste,  although  most  luscious,  this  dish  is 
pleasant,  the  flavour  resembling  a  fine  highly-smoked  West- 
phalian  ham  ;  the  rice  bird  was  also  on  table,  which  is  one 
delicate  delicious  morsel  of  fat,  of  a  gamey  flavour. 

The  vegetables  are  dressed  with  a  quantity  of  oil  and 
soy,  or  stewed  in  gravy,  and  but  few  are  used  by  the 
wealthy ;  the  water  chestnut  (which  is  the  bulb  of  a  rush 
indigenous  to  China),  the  stem  of  the  water  lily,  the  root 


A  MANDARIN'S  DINNER  PARTY      313 

of  the  arrowwort  and  the  sweet  potato  or  yam,  are  in  vogue 
among  the  wealthy ;  but  the  Chinese  mode  of  preparing 
these  articles  of  nutriment  renders  them  most  unpalatable 
to  Europeans,  and  we  did  not  venture  upon  any  at  this 
feast.  Next  followed  a  course  of  pastry  and  sweetmeats, 
all  being  placed  in  bowls ;  the  contents  of  these  basins 
were  formed  into  the  shapes  of  animals,  birds,  beasts, 
fishes  and  flowers,  coloured  to  represent  nature  in  a  very 
correct  manner;  the  interior  of  these  nice  creatures  were 
filled  to  repletion  with  sweetmeats,  and  although  the  idea 
is  not  a  nice  or  delicate  one,  the  internals  of  these  pastry 
animals  were  very  pleasant  and  delicious.  This  course  was 
succeeded  by  others,  the  numbers  and  varieties  of  which 
would  only  weary  in  description.  At  a  feast  of  ceremony 
such  as  we  have  been  describing,  it  is  usual  for  the  guests 
to  continue  the  masticatory  process  for  four  or  five  hours. 


FLOWERS  AND  GARDENS 

J.  DYER  BALL 

THE  inhabitants  of  the  "  Flowery  Land,"  as  China 
is  called,  are  fond  of  flowers.  No  lady  is  dressed 
without  sweet-scented  beautiful  flowers  stuck  in 
her  glossy  black  hair,  and  the  lower  classes  are  glad  to  copy 
their  superiors,  whenever  a  holiday  or  any  event  out  of  the 
common  gives  them  the  chance  to  bloom  forth  in  Nature's 
own  adornments.  Failing  the  natural,  they  have  recourse 
to  artificial  flowers,  some  of  which  are  very  well  made, 
especially  the  pith  flowers  at  Amoy,  for  which  the  place  is 
famous.  In  most  houses  and  even  shops,  a  vase  or  two  is 
found,  if  nowhere  else,  at  least  in  front  of  the  idol's  shrine, 
where  some  lovely  chrysanthemums,  if  they  are  in  season, 
white,  yellow,  or  red,  add  a  touch  of  colour  or  beauty  to 
the  formal  primness  of  the  set  and  stiff  furniture. 

At  China  New  Year,  flowers  are  all  the  rage.  The 
beautiful  white  and  yellow  narcissus  with  its  long,  lance- 
shaped,  stiff,  green  leaves  is  par  excellence  the  New  Year's 
flower.  It  is  considered  lucky  to  have  the  first  bud  open 
on  New  Year's  Day.  Another  variety  has  the  leaves  all 
gnarled,  being  trained  like  crab's  claws,  and  the  plant,  in- 
stead of  being  tall  and  upright,  is  reduced  by  art  into  a 
curled  and  curious-shaped  looking  object.  Another  es- 


FLOWERS  AND  GARDENS  315 

sentially  New  Year's  flower  is  the  tiu-chungfa  (Enkyanthus 
reticulatus).  Each  blossom,  about  half  an  inch  in  length, 
hangs  down  like  a  miniature  bell  from  the  woody  branches, 
while  the  delicate  green  of  the  new  springing  leaves  forms 
a  fine  shade  of  contrast  to  the  pink  and  white  of  the  innu- 
merable tiny  flowers :  these  are  not  grown  in  the  house,  as 
the  first  is,  but  branches  of  them  are  stuck  into  the  quaint- 
looking  vases.  A  branch  of  flower-culture  which  we  quite 
neglect  in  the  West  is  that  of  fruit-blossoms.  The 
Chinese  cut  off  branches  of  fruit-trees  as  they  burst  into 
bud,  and  the  delicate  tints  of  the  peach,  the  white  flowers 
of  the  plum,  and  the  tender  blossoms  of  the  almond,  are  all 
eagerly  sought  for,  to  decorate  their  homes  at  that  festive 
season  of  the  year.  Another  common  form  of  flower- 
decoration  is  the  employment  of  flower-baskets.  A  wire 
framework  made  into  the  shape  of  a  basket  is  used,  and  the 
buds  and  blossoms  artistically  arranged  on  it  so  as  to  com- 
pletely hide  it.  These  are  hung  up  in  the  room  or  at  the 
doors  and  diffuse  a  grateful  odour  through  the  heated  apart- 
ments on  a  warm  summer's  day.  They  are  largely  em- 
ployed at  weddings,  as  well  as  at  other  times,  nor  are  the 
designs  confined  only  to  flower-baskets. 

There  are  no  window  plants,  so  esteemed  by  the  better 
class  of  artisans  amongst  us,  as  well  as  by  others  higher  in 
the  social  scale,  but  their  place  is  sometimes  taken  by  a 
solitary  plant,  often  some  woody  non-flowering  shrub, 
which  has  been  dwarfed  with  much  ingenuity  and  is  tended 
with  constant  care — the  whole  object  only  some  six  inches 


316  CHINA 

in  height,  but  a  perfect  little  tree  in  its  way.  This  idea  is 
further  developed  at  times,  and  a  little  rockery  is  produced, 
frightful  in  its  ruggedness — an  idealized  bit  of  mountain 
scenery — on  projecting  points  of  which  toy  arbours  in 
earthenware  are  perched,  little  paths  meander  from  one  to 
the  other,  crossing  the  lilliputian  gorges  and  ravines  on 
equally  small  earthenware  bridges,  while  below,  and  in  front 
of  all,  lies  a  tiny  piece  of  water,  in  which  gorgeous  and 
grotesque  goldfish  swim  about.  The  heights  above  are 
covered  at  every  vantage  point  with  small  clumps  of  dwarf 
bamboo,  and  numerous  equally  small  trees  and  shrubs 
clothe  with  greenness  the  bare  masses  of  the  dry,  rugged 
rock,  all  in  proportion  with  the  minuteness  of  this  morsel 
of  quaint  imitation  of  Nature's  beauties,  looked  at  from  a 
Chinese  standpoint — the  whole  affair  only  being  a  foot  or 
two  in  height.  Infinite  care  and  tender  pains  are  taken  in 
planting,  watering  and  tending  this  microcosm  of  a  land- 
scape, thus  revealing  that  the  Chinese  are  not  wanting 
in  a  love  of  Nature,  as  seen  through  their  goggle-like 
spectacles. 

Amongst  flowers,  the  tree-peony  is  highly  esteemed, 
being  called  "  the  King  of  Flowers."  The  skill  of  the 
Chinese  has  been  exercised  in  producing  many  varieties. 
Another  flower  much  thought  of  is  the  lotus.  There  is  a 
white  as  well  as  a  red  variety,  and  they  are  so  highly  culti- 
vated as  to  cause  the  petals  to  spring  from  the  seed-holes 
even.  They  are  magnificent  flowers,  with  their  delicately 
veined  petals,  quaint-shaped  repositories  and  curious  peltate 


FLOWERS  AND  GARDENS  317 

leaves.  They  are  much  used  in  Chinese  decorative  art, 
and  form  a  fine  throne  for  a  god  or  goddess  to  sit  on  in  a 
state  of  ecstatic  and  nirvana-like  contemplation. 

It  is  impossible  to  even  enumerate  all  the  beautiful 
flowers  in  which  the  Chinese  delight :  the  white  tuberoses 
laden  at  the  evening  hour  with  heavy  perfume,  roses  with 
but  little  scent,  beautiful  double  dahlias,  lovely  sweet-smell- 
ing magnolias,  pure  white  lilies,  superb  camellias,  chrysan- 
themums of  different  shades,  and  many  others  with  no  Eng- 
lish names,  a  mere  list  of  which  would  fill  pages. 

One  who  comes  to  China  prepared  to  see  the  beautiful 
beds,  the  grouping  of  colours  and  blending  of  shades,  the 
massing  of  foliage,  the  parterres,  the  trim  gravel-walks, 
the  grass-lawns  and  the  tout  ensemble  that  goes  to  make  up 
the  idea  represented  by  the  word  garden  amongst  us,  must 
be  prepared  to  be  disappointed.  In  their  place  are  fantastic 
masses  of  artificial  rockwork,  or  pools  filled  with  the  large, 
rich,  green,  disc-like  leaves  of  the  lotus,  while  the  formal 
but  lovely  red  flowers  give  some  warmth  and  colour  to  the 
scene.  A  Chinese  garden  must  have  a  suggestion,  at  least, 
of  water :  if  nothing  else,  a  tiny  pond  with  artificial  rock- 
work  and  a  bridge — a  veritable  arch — up  which  one  climbs 
to  its  top,  and  descends  on  the  other  side.  At  times,  as  on 
the  earth's  surface,  water  abounds  more  than  the  dry  land, 
for  numerous  sheets  of  water  take  up  the  space  which 
would  be  occupied  in  Western  lands  by  flower-beds ;  but 
still  the  flower-beds  are  not  foregone ;  in  other  words,  the 
Chinese  have  no  flower-beds  on  land,  but  their  flower-beds 


3i8  CHINA 

are  in  the  water ;  for  the  still  surface  of  the  ponds  is  em- 
bellished with  the  large,  round  peltate  leaves  of  the  lotus, 
having  a  stiff  beauty  of  their  own,  relieved  in  the  summer 
months  by  the  many  petaled,  purple,  chalice-like  flowers 
borne  on  their  long,  green  stalks  above  the  leaves,  and 
rising  from  the  underlying  mud — a  Buddhist  emblem  j  for 
11  as  it  lifts  up  its  buds  out  of  the  slimy  ground  to  a  greater 
or  less  height  above  the  water,  unfolding  its  leaves  and 
flowers,  on  whose  spotless  petals  no  traces  are  to  be  found 
of  the  mire  from  which  it  has  sprung,  so  the  souls  of  men 
.  .  .  rise  from  the  slime  of  sin,  by  their  own  power 
and  effort,  to  different  heights,  and  reach  the  blessedness  of 
Nirvana."  Later  on,  when  the  petals  are  scattered  and 
have  floated  away  like  tiny  boats,  the  green  and  curious 
shaped  seed-vessels  are  to  be  seen.  Bridges,  as  we  have 
said,  cross  these  ponds,  while  kiosks,  or  summer-houses, 
are  placed  here  and  there,  in  the  midst  of  the  water  or  on 
land,  as  fancy  suggests.  Here  picnics  or  summer  parties 
are  held,  and  the  literary  tastes  of  the  guests  are  met  by  the 
quotations,  or  excerpts  from  the  classics  hung  up  by  the 
hundreds  under  the  roof  of  the  sheltered  walls,  while  the 
votaries  of  the  histrionic  art  have  their  tastes  provided  for  by 
a  stage  created  especially  for  that  purpose.  Larger  build- 
ings are  scattered  about  the  grounds,  fitted  with  the  straight- 
backed  and  antique-looking  blackwood  chairs,  matched  with 
teapoys  and  sofas,  while  rustic-looking  stools  stand  about, 
formed  each  of  an  irregular  stone,  supported  on  a  wooden 
stand  of  three  legs.  Those  who  have  not  been  in  the 


FLOWERS  AND  GARDENS  319 

tropics  know  nothing  of  the  luxury  of  one  of  these  cold, 
smooth,  stone  seats  on  a  hot  summer's  day. 

The  plants  are  ranged  in  rows  in  hundreds  of  coarse 
earthenware  pots,  or  at  the  best  green  glazed  ones  sup- 
ported on  similar  stands  or  on  wooden  ones.  Very  few,  if 
any,  flowers  are  planted  in  the  ground.  Plants  of  privet 
are  trained  into  figures  of  animals  and  men,  to  which  eyes, 
hands,  feet  and  hats  of  earthenware  are  added.  Long  rows 
of  these,  interspersed  with  flowers  and  shrubs,  all  in  flower- 
pots, line  the  walks.  Trees  are  allowed  to  grow  in  certain 
places,  but  there  are  no  ferneries,  no  glass-houses,  and, 
though  the  minutest  care  is  taken  in  the  cultivation,  the 
results  do  not  produce  what  we  would  look  upon  as  a 
garden.  Gardens,  in  this  Chinese  sense  of  the  term,  are 
attached  to  temples,  to  ancestral  halls,  or  form  the  pleasure- 
grounds  of  wealthy  gentlemen,  and  are  sometimes,  in  the 
latter  case  especially,  of  considerable  extent.  Most  Chinese 
who  can  afford  it,  or  who  have  the  space  for  it,  have  a  few 
flowers,  or  shrubs  in  pots,  some  rockery  work,  and  a  little 
water  with  goldfish,  in  the  inner  part  of  their  house,  or 
congeries  of  buildings  which  do  duty  for  a  mansion. 


AGRICULTURE  AND  FISHING 

SIR  HENRT  ARTHUR  BLAKE 

THE  importance  of  agriculture  is  emphasized  by 
the  annual  ceremony  of  ploughing  three  furrows 
by  the  Emperor  at  the  Temple  of  Agriculture  in 
the  presence  of  all  the  princes  and  high  officials  of  Peking. 
Furrows  are  afterwards  ploughed  by  the  princes  and  the 
high  officers  of  the  Crown.  Agriculture  is  the  business  of 
probably  nine-tenths  of  the  population,  and  in  no  country 
in  the  world  is  the  fertility  of  the  soil  preserved  more  thor- 
oughly. In  the  portions  of  China  visited  by  me  no  idle 
land  was  to  be  seen,  but  everywhere  the  country  smiled 
with  great  fields  of  grass  or  rape  or  vegetables,  alternating 
with  pollarded  mulberry  trees  in  the  silk-producing  dis- 
tricts, while  extensive  tracts  of  the  beautiful  pink  or  white 
lotuses  are  grown,  the  seeds  of  which  as  well  as  the  tuber- 
ous roots  are  used  for  food  and  the  large  leaves  for  wrap- 
pers. Nothing  in  the  shape  of  manure  is  lost  in  city, 
town,  or  village;  everything  goes  at  once  back  to  the 
fields,  and  nowhere  in  China  is  a  river  polluted  by  the 
wasted  wealth  of  city  sewers.  On  the  banks  of  the  canals 
the  cultivators  even  dredge  up  the  mud  and  distribute  it 
over  their  fields  by  various  ingenious  devices. 

Next  to  agriculture  in  general  importance  is  the  fishing 


AGRICULTURE  AND  FISHING        321 

industry,  in  which  many  millions  of  the  population  are 
engaged,  the  river  boat  population  forming  a  class  apart, 
whose  home  is  exclusively  upon  their  boats.  To  describe 
the  variety  of  boats  of  all  kinds  found  in  Chinese  waters 
would  require  a  volume.  The  tens  of  thousands  of  junks 
engaged  in  the  coasting  trade  and  on  the  great  rivers  vary 
from  five  to  five  hundred  tons  capacity,  while  every  town 
upon  ocean,  river,  or  canal  has  its  house-boats,  flower- 
boats,  or  floating  restaurants  and  music  halls,  passenger 
boats,  fishing  boats,  trading  boats,  etc.  On  these  boats 
the  family  lives  from  the  cradle  to  the  grave,  and  while  the 
mother  is  working  the  infant  may  be  seen  sprawling  about 
the  boat,  to  which  it  is  attached  by  a  strong  cord,  while  a 
gourd  is  tied  to  its  back,  so  that  if  it  goes  overboard  it  may 
be  kept  afloat  until  retrieved  by  the  anchoring  cord.  In 
Hong  Kong,  where  it  is  computed  that  there  are  about 
thirty  thousand  boat  people  in  the  harbour,  the  infant  is 
strapped  to  the  mother's  back  while  she  sculls  the  boat, 
the  child's  head — unprotected  in  the  blazing  sun — wagging 
from  side  to  side  until  one  wonders  that  it  does  not  fly  off. 
The  large  junks  with  their  great  high  sterns  and  bold 
curves,  and  with  the  setting  sun  glinting  on  their  yellow 
sands  of  matting,  are  a  sight  to  stir  the  soul  of  an  artist. 
Many  of  these  carry  guns,  as  the  dangers  of  gang  robberies 
on  shore  are  equalled  by  that  of  piracy  on  sea  or  river,  the 
West  River  having  the  most  evil  reputation  in  this  respect. 
The  unwillingness  of  junks  to  carry  lights  at  night,  lest 
their  position  should  invite  piratical  attack,  adds  to  the 


322  CHINA 

dangers  of  collision,  and  necessitates  extreme  caution  after 
sunset  in  navigating  the  southern  coasts  of  China.  These 
junks  convey  all  the  cargo  from  the  coast  and  riverside 
towns  to  the  treaty  ports,  through  which  all  trade  between 
China  and  foreign  nations  is  exchanged.  The  high  square 
stern  affords  accommodation  for  the  crew,  but  no  man  dares 
to  desecrate  the  bow  by  sitting  down  there.  On  one  oc- 
casion when  we  went  by  canal  to  Hangchow  we  stopped 
at  Haining  to  observe  the  incoming  of  the  great  bore  that 
at  the  vernal  equinox  sweeps  up  the  river  from  the  bay, 
and  affords  one  of  the  most  striking  sights  in  the  world. 
We  heard  the  roar  and  saw  the  advancing  wall  of  water 
ten  minutes  before  it  arrived.  The  curling  wave  in  front 
was  about  ten  feet  high  and  swept  past  at  the  rate  of  four- 
teen miles  an  hour,  but  the  vast  mass  of  swirling  sea  that 
rose  behind  the  advancing  wall  was  a  sight  more  grand  than 
the  rapids  above  Niagara.  I  measured  accurately  its 
velocity  and  height.  In  one  minute  the  tide  rose  nine  feet 
nine  inches  on  the  sea  wall  that  runs  northward  from 
Haining  for  a  hundred  miles.  It  is  seventeen  feet  high, 
splendidly  built  with  cut  stone,  and  with  the  heavy  stones 
on  top  (four  feet  by  one  foot)  dovetailed  to  each  other  by 
iron  clamps,  similar  to  those  I  afterwards  saw  at  the  end  of 
the  Great  Wall  of  China,  where  it  abuts  on  the  sea  at 
Shan-hai-kwan. 

If  the  land  is  thoroughly  cultivated  the  same  may  be  said 
of  the  waters,  for  in  sea,  river,  lake  or  pond,  wherever 
water  rests  or  flows,  there  is  no  device  that  ingenuity  can 


AGRICULTURE  AND  FISHING        323 

conceive  that  is  not  used  for  the  capture  of  fish,  which  en- 
ters largely  into  the  food  of  the  people ;  and  no  cultivation 
is  more  intensive  than  pisciculture,  a  fish-pond  being  more 
valuable  than  ten  times  its  area  of  cultivated  land.  Some- 
times the  pond  belongs  to  a  village,  and  nothing  comes 
amiss  that  may  serve  to  feed  the  fish  from  the  grass  round 
the  border  of  the  pond  to  the  droppings  of  the  silkworms 
in  silk-producing  districts.  In  such  cases  the  village  latrine 
is  generally  built  over  the  pond ;  it  may,  therefore,  be  un- 
derstood that  Europeans  generally  eschew  the  coarse  pond 
fish  and  prefer  fresh  or  salt  sea  fish.  These  pond  fish 
grow  very  rapidly  and  are  taken  by  nets  of  all  shapes  and 
sizes.  Sometimes  a  net  forty  feet  square  is  suspended  from 
bamboo  shears  and  worked  by  ropes  and  pulleys,  the  net 
being  lowered  and  after  a  time,  during  which  fish  may  be 
driven  towards  it,  slowly  raised,  the  fish  remaining  in  the 
net,  the  edges  of  which  leave  the  waters  first.  In  ponds 
of  large  area  forty  or  fifty  men  may  be  seen,  each  with  a 
net  twelve  to  fifteen  feet  square  suspended  from  a  bamboo 
pole,  all  fishing  at  the  same  time.  The  entire  pond  is  gone 
over,  and  as  the  fish  are  kept  on  the  move  large  numbers 
are  thus  taken.  They  are  then  if  near  a  river  placed  in 
well  boats  and  sent  alive  to  market.  During  the  summer 
months  the  bays  around  the  coast  are  covered  by  thousands 
of  these  large  square  nets.  A  net  sometimes  eighty  feet 
square  is  fastened  at  each  corner  to  poles,  long  in  propor- 
tion to  the  depth  of  the  water,  the  other  ends  of  which  are 
anchored  by  heavy  weights.  The  men  who  work  the  nets 


324  CHINA 

live  in  a  hut  built  upon  long  poles  similarly  weighted,  and 
securely  stayed  by  cables  anchored  at  the  four  cardinal 
points  of  the  compass.  From  the  hut  platform  the  net  is 
manipulated  by  a  bridle  rope  worked  by  a  windlass.  When 
the  net  is  raised  the  fish  fall  into  a  purse  in  the  centre,  from 
which  they  are  removed  by  men  who  row  under  the  now 
suspended  net  and  allow  the  fish  to  drop  from  the  purse 
into  the  boat.  These  nets  are  set  up  sometimes  in  nine  to 
ten  fathoms.  I  have  never  seen  them  used  in  any  other 
bays  than  those  on  the  coast  of  China,  where,  it  may  be 
observed  incidentally,  there  is  hardly  any  perceptible  growth 
of  seaweed,  and  one  never  perceives  the  smell  of  the  sea  or 
feels  the  smack  of  salt  upon  the  lips  as  we  do  on  our  coasts. 
I  have  said  that  the  devices  for  the  capture  of  fish  are 
endless,  from  the  large  nets  just  described  to  the  small  fish 
trap  set  in  every  trench  or  gap  through  which  water  flows. 
But  they  do  not  end  here,  for  above  Ichang,  on  the  Yangtze, 
others  are  trained  to  drive  fish  into  the  nets;  and  on  the 
lakes  and  canals  a  not  unusual  sight  is  the  boat  or  raft  with 
eight  cormorants,  which,  at  the  word  of  command,  go  over- 
board and  dive  in  pursuit  of  the  fish.  Sometimes  the  bird 
is  recalcitrant,  but  a  few  smart  strokes  on  the  water  close 
beside  it  with  a  long  bamboo  sends  the  bird  under  at  once. 
When  a  fish  is  caught  and  swallowed  the  cormorant  is 
taken  on  board  and  being  held  over  a  basket  the  lower 
mandible  is  drawn  down,  when  out  pops  the  fish  uninjured, 
the  cormorant  being  prevented  from  swallowing  its  prey  by 
a  cord  tied  round  the  lower  part  of  the  neck. 


AGRICULTURE  AND  FISHING        325 

But  the  most  curious  device  for  the  capture  of  fish  is 
practiced  on  the  Pearl  and  West  Rivers,  where  one  sees 
poor  lepers  seated  in  the  stern  of  a  long,  narrow  canoe 
along  the  side  of  which  is  a  hinged  board  painted  white. 
This  they  turn  over  the  side  at  an  angle  during  the  night, 
and  the  fish  jumping  on  to  it  are  dexterously  jerked  into  the 
boat. 


BOATS 

JOHN  HENRT  GHAT 

SOME  travellers  have  not  hesitated  to  say  that  there 
are  more  vessels  in  China  than  in  all  of  the  rest  of 
the  world  put  together — an  assertion  which  is  not  so 
very  extravagant  as  it  seems  at  first  blush.     The  trade  of 
ship-building  is,  therefore,  one  of  great  extent  and  impor- 
tance.    The    vessels    navigating   the   seas,   rivers,  creeks, 
canals   and   lakes   of  China  include  every  variety  in  naval 
architecture   from  the  ocean-going  war-junk  to  the  small 
craft  that  ply  between  river  ports. 

The  large  ocean-going  junks  which  trade  between  the 
northern  and  southern  ports,  and  those  which  sail  between 
China  and  Batavia,  Singapore  and  Siam,  respectively,  are 
very  singular  in  their  construction.  They  have  a  carrying 
capacity  equal  to  thousands  of  tons,  and,  like  the  war-junks, 
they  are  divided  into  several  water-tight  compartments. 
They  have  three  masts,  each  consisting  of  one  solid  piece 
of  wood.  The  mainmast  is  placed  amidships ;  the  fore- 
mast well  forward  in  the  bows;  and  the  mizzenmast  quite 
near  to  the  taffrail.  Upon  the  masts  strips  of  red  paper  are 
pasted  with  sentences  of  the  following  import  in  large 
Chinese  characters  :  "  The  mast  is  as  a  general  command- 
ing ten  thousand  soldiers  "  ;  "  From  every  side  of  the  com- 


BOATS  327 

pass  may  fair  winds  blow"j  "May  this  mast  scorn  tem- 
pests, from  whatever  quarter  of  the  heavens  they  may  come." 
To  the  top  of  the  mainmast  a  vane  is  attached,  from  the  tail 
of  which  a  long  red  streamer  flutters  in  the  breeze.  On 
the  first  and  on  the  fifteenth  day  of  each  Chinese  month, 
that  is  at  the  new  and  again  at  the  full  moon,  there  is  on 
the  taffrail  an  array  of  small  triangular-shaped  banners,  whilst 
a  large  red,  or  white,  or  black  flag  adorns  the  maintop. 
The  sails  are  made  either  of  matting,  or  cotton,  or  the  fibres 
of  the  cocoanut.  They  are  very  large,  the  mainsail  in  par- 
ticular being  of  vast  extent,  and  they  are  of  the  same  shape, 
and  are  straightened  in  the  same  manner  as  are  those  of  the 
war-junks.  The  hull,  which  is  very  heavy  and  strong,  is 
usually  painted  white,  and  the  bulwarks,  which  are  very 
high,  are  painted  according  to  the  custom  of  the  port  to 
which  the  junk  belongs.  The  bulwarks  of  junks  from  the 
province  of  Fo-kien  are  painted  black,  with  a  green  border  j 
those  from  the  ports  of  Chit-kong  are  painted  black,  with  a 
white  border ;  and  those  from  the  ports  of  Kwang-tung  are 
painted  black,  with  a  red  border.  These  modes  of  painting 
vessels  are  not  merely  fashions  regulated  by  the  customs  of 
the  different  provinces,  but  are  prescribed  by  law,  as  the 
colours  of  their  bulwarks  serve  when  Chinese  ships  pass 
each  other  on  the  high  seas  to  indicate  the  ports  to  which 
they  belong.  The  stern-board  in  vessels  of  this  class  is 
broad  and  high,  and  on  it  is  painted  in  gaudy  colours  a 
large  bird  with  outstretched  wings.  This  bird  resembles  the 
fabled  phoenix,  and  is  called  by  the  Chinese  "  Foong."  It 


328  CHINA 

is  represented  as  standing  on  a  rock  in  the  midst  of  a  troubled 
ocean.  It  is  regarded  by  mariners  as  an  emblem  of  speed, 
and  is  supposed  to  assist  very  materially  in  urging  the  vessel 
onward.  Its  standing  on  a  rock  in  the  midst  of  the  deep 
and  scorning  the  tempest,  is  regarded  by  the  sailors  as  em- 
blematical of  safety.  There  are  also  on  the  stern-board 
representations  of  the  sun  and  moon,  which,  of  course,  are 
regarded  by  the  seamen  as  indicative  of  light  by  day  and 
night. 

The  names  of  Chinese  vessels  are  identical  in  purport, 
one  being  named  the  "  Good  Success,"  another  the  "  Golden 
Profits,"  a  third,  the  "  Never-Ending  Gains,"  etc.,  etc. 
The  prow  is  supposed  to  bear  a  resemblance  to  the  mouth 
of  a  dragon,  or  other  large  fish.  On  each  side  is  the  repre- 
sentation of  an  eye,  by  which  the  sailors  imagine  that  the 
vessel  can  espy  sunken  rocks,  shoals  and  other  dangers  of 
the  deep.  The  helm  is  very  large  and  extends  considerably 
beyond  the  stern  in  every  class  of  junk.  These  large  rud- 
ders are  of  course  of  great  service  to  Chinese,  which,  gen- 
erally speaking,  are  provided  with  very  small  keels.  That 
they  may  be  moved  with  ease  through  the  water  they  are 
perforated.  On  the  poop  there  is  a  pavilion  of  wood  richly 
carved  and  ornamented,  above  the  doorway  of  which  are  in- 
scribed three  or  four  sentences,  such  as  :  "  May  the  winds 
not  cause  angry  waters  to  arise !  "  or  "  May  this  vessel 
brave  the  storms  of  a  hundred  years  !  " 

The  departure  of  a  vessel  from  port  takes  place  on  a 
lucky  day,  selected  by  Taoist  priests,  or,  in  their  absence, 


BOATS  329 

by  astrologers.  The  day  generally  selected  is  either  the 
first  or  fifteenth  of  each  lunar  month,  at  the  new  or  full 
moon.  As  a  junk  is  leaving  port,  other  crews  which  hail 
from  the  same  port  mount  the  poops  of  their  junks  with  the 
view  of  propitiating  the  winds  and  waves  in  favour  of  the 
departing  vessel,  some  of  them  energetically  beating  gongs 
and  tom-toms,  whilst  others,  to  dispel  all  evil  influences,  in- 
crease the  din  by  discharging  pop-guns  and  firecrackers. 
When  the  vessel  reaches  the  port,  religious  ceremonies  are 
again  observed  in  honour  of  Tien-how.  The  services  on 
such  occasions  are  not  usually  held  on  board  the  junk,  but 
in  a  temple  in  honour  of  the  goddess.  They  consist  of 
thanksgiving,  prayers  and  offerings  of  boiled  fowl  and  pork, 
or  of  small  portions  of  the  merchandise  which  the  junk  has 
brought  to  port. 

At  the  port  of  Canton  there  is  a  class  of  still  smaller 
junks  which  are  employed  in  the  salt  trade  with  the 
provincial  city  of  Canton.  They  receive  their  cargoes 
at  See-toong,  Tien-pak  and  Fan-lo-kong,  ports  on  the 
coasts  of  the  province  of  Kwang-tung  and  situate  east  and 
yvest  respectively  of  the  colony  of  Hong-Kong.  These 
salt  vessels  are  very  numerous,  and  their  anchorage,  near 
what  are  termed  the  salt  flats,  has  the  appearance  of  a 
forest  of  masts. 

The  Koo-Tay,  or  fruit  boats,  are  numerous  on  the 
Canton  River.  They  ply  principally  between  Canton  and 
Macao  and  are  supposed  to  carry  fruit  only,  on  which 
supposition  only  a  small  tax  is  imposed  upon  them  by  the 


330  CHINA 

government.  Merchandise,  however,  of  all  sorts  is  carried 
in  them.  They  are  about  ninety  feet  in  length  and  from 
twenty  to  twenty-five  feet  in  beam.  They  have  two  masts, 
the  mainmast  being  in  front  of  a  flat-roofed  house,  which 
extends  over  one-half  of  the  deck.  The  foremast  is  in  the 
bows.  The  crew  of  a  vessel  of  this  description  consists 
of  twenty  men. 

Another,  and  a  very  numerous  class  of  river-boats,  is 
called  the  Si-qua,  from  a  real  or  supposed  resemblance 
which  the  hulls  of  these  vessels  are  supposed  to  bear  to  a 
watermelon.  The  deck  of  such  a  vessel  is  semicircular  in 
shape,  and  on  each  side  there  are  three  or  four  large  ports 
through  which  the  cargo  is  received  or  discharged.  Each 
vessel  has  one  mast  with  a  large  mat  sail. 

Tea-boats,  which  navigate  the  Canton  River,  are  called 
Tow-Shun.  They  are  about  ninety  feet  in  length  and 
fifteen  feet  in  beam.  The  hold,  which  is  four  feet  in 
depth,  is  divided  into  several  water-tight  compartments  in 
which  the  tea  is  stored.  These  vessels  are  not  restricted 
to  the  conveyance  of  tea  only,  and  they  not  unfrequently 
arrive  at  Canton  laden  with  products  of  various  kinds.  The 
roof  of  the  tea-boats  is  semicircular. 

The  cassia  boats  on  the  Canton  River  are  very  similar 
in  construction  to  the  Cha-shun  or  tea-boats,  which  navi- 
gate the  Yangtze.  Their  bows  are  made  very  sharp  in 
order  that  they  may  shoot  the  rapids,  which,  as  in  many 
other  Chinese  rivers,  render  navigation  perilous.  The 
province  of  Kwang-si  is  the  cassia-producing  district  of 


BOATS  331 

China  j  and  these  vessels  have  to  descend  the  numerous 
tributaries  which  flow  from  it  into  the  Canton  River. 

In  the  large  ocean-going  junks  the  sailors  pay  their  de- 
votions to  the  goddess  Tien-how.  Those  on  board  ships 
engaged  in  the  river  traffic  are  devotees  of  the  deity  called 
Loong-moo,  or  the  Dragon's  Mother.  In  honour  of  this 
goddess  there  are  small  shrines  at  frequent  intervals  on  the 
banks,  and  a  religious  ceremony  of  a  very  singular  nature 
is  usually  observed  by  the  masters  of  river  junks  at  the  be- 
ginning of  a  voyage. 

A  well-known  class  of  boats  on  the  Canton  River  are 
Wang-lau  or  Fa-Shun,  /.  *.,  flower-boats.  These  are  to 
all  intents  and  purposes  floating  cafes.  Each  boat  consists 
of  a  large  saloon  which  extends  the  whole  length  of  the 
vessel.  They  are  usually  decorated  with  carvings  in  wood 
and  rendered  brilliant  with  gilt  and  green  paint.  The 
windows — which  in  many  instances  consist  of  stained 
glass — are  on  each  side,  and  extend  to  the  whole  length 
of  the  vessel.  At  the  close  of  the  day  boats  of  this  de- 
scription are  much  resorted  to  for  festive  purposes  by  the 
upper  and  middle  classes,  and,  the  lamps,  with  which  they 
are  profusely  furnished,  being  lighted,  they  present  a  very 
gay  and  animated  appearance.  Not  very  dissimilar  to 
the  flower-boats  are  the  boats  called  Chee-Tung-Teng, 
which  are  considerably  smaller,  and  not  so  gaily  decorated. 
These  boats  are  used  as  floating-hotels,  and  are  sometimes 
hired  as  boats  of  travel,  the  sum  charged  each  day  varying 
from  two  and  a  half  to  four  dollars. 


332  CHINA 

The  boats  called  Tan-Poo,  or  bed  boats,  are  of  the  same 
class,  and  are  much  frequented  by  Chinese  travellers. 
They  are  much  smaller  than  the  Chee-Tung-Teng  and 
are  somewhat  differently  constructed.  The  carved  wooden 
window  shutters,  or  Venetians,  with  which  they  are  pro- 
vided are  bright  green  and  give  a  gay  appearance.  Be- 
sides these  there  are  the  Chu-Teng,  or  floating  kitchens. 
In  size  and  shape  these  are  very  similar  to  flower-boats, 
but  they  are  devoid  of  all  decorations  and  look  neglected. 
In  the  front  part  of  each  boat  is  a  large  kitchen  range  of 
brickwork,  provided  with  all  necessary  culinary  utensils. 
These  boats  are  used  for  preparing  large  dinners  at  the 
celebration  of  the  marriages  of  boatmen  and  on  other 
festive  occasions.  The  dinners  prepared  in  them  are 
generally  served  on  board  other  boats.  The  floating- 
kitchens  serve  also  as  floating  restaurants  for  persons  in 
the  humbler  walks  of  life,  the  stern  being,  in  a  rude  and 
simple  manner,  fitted  up  as  a  cafe. 

The  Koong-Sze-Teng,  or  Hong-Mee-Teng,  or  Hong 
boats  are  from  thirty  to  forty  feet  in  length  and  are  some- 
what like  the  gondolas  of  Venice.  They  are  in  many 
instances  carved  and  gilded,  and  the  saloon  is  so  spacious 
as  to  afford  sitting-room  for  eight  or  ten  persons.  Abaft 
the  saloon  there  is  a  cabin  for  the  boatmen.  The  boats 
are  propelled  by  a  large  scull,  which  works  on  a  pivot 
made  fast  in  the  stern  post.  Oars,  consisting  not  of  one 
but  of  two  pieces  of  wood,  are  plied  by  five  or  six  boatmen 
in  the  bows.  In  breezy  weather  a  mast  is  erected  im- 


BOATS  333 

mediately  in  front  of  the  saloon,  and  the  sail  is  sufficiently 
large  to  give  great  speed.  Hong  boats  are  much  used  by 
persons  in  search  of  a  day's  recreation  or  amusement. 

The  Lou-Shun,  or  chamber  boats,  are  very  numerous  on 
the  Canton  River.  In  many  respects  they  resemble  "  flower 
boats."  The  purposes,  however,  for  which  they  are  used 
are  altogether  different.  They  may  be  regarded  as  floating 
temples  or  shrines.  The  marriages  of  boatmen  are 
solemnized  in  them  by  Taoist  priests  who  also  resort  to 
these  boats  for  the  purpose  of  saying  masses  for  the  repose 
of  the  souls  of  persons  who  have  either  perished,  or  who 
have  died  at  the  corners  of  streets,  "unwept,  un- 
honoured  and  unsung."  Boats  called  Nam-Mo-Teng  are 
the  residences  of  Taoist  priests,  whose  services  day  and 
night  are  required  by  the  boat  population. 

The  Chu-Ka-Teng  are  very  similar  to  the  Nam-Mo- 
Teng.  As  a  rule,  however,  they  are  much  smaller.  Men 
who  are  employed  in  a  variety  of  ways  on  the  rivers  and 
creeks  of  China  make  them  their  homes.  Like  the  class 
of  vessels  which  I  have  been  describing  these  boats  are 
never  removed  from  their  anchorages.  They  are  the  float- 
ing homes  of  sailors  engaged  in  navigating  ocean-going 
junks,  river-trading  junks,  lighters  and  fishing-boats,  who, 
although  they  may  be  absent  on  voyages  extending  over 
several  months,  look  on  their  return  to  find  these  vessels,  in 
which  in  all  probability  they  were  born  and  brought  up, 
safely  moored  at  their  familiar  stations.  These  floating 
homes  are  generally  arranged  so  as  to  form  Streets  of  boats. 


334  CHINA 

The  Sha-Teng,  or  Sampans,  as  they  are  called,  are  very 
numerous  on  the  Canton  waters.  They  are  in  great  req- 
uisition by  persons  whose  business  takes  them  on  the  river, 
or  who  wish  to  cross  it.  There  are  many  different  kinds. 
The  Sha-Teng  of  the  first  class  are  about  twenty-eight  feet 
in  length  and  eight  or  nine  feet  in  breadth.  The  centre 
part  of  the  boat  forms  a  saloon,  which  is  enclosed  on  each 
side  by  green  Venetians  and  covered  by  a  circular  mat  roof. 
The  saloon  is  entered  from  the  bows  and  has  a  fixed  bench 
or  seat  on  each  end,  and  one  at  the  further  end.  The 
seats,  which  are  covered  with  cushions,  are  capable  of  ac- 
commodating five  persons.  On  each  side  of  the  entrance 
door  is  a  door-post  of  carved  wood,  painted  either  green  or 
red.  From  the  arched  roof  of  the  saloon  a  branch  of  the 
sago  palm  is  suspended  to  dispel  all  evil  influences ;  and  on 
the  side  of  the  saloon  there  is  either  a  picture  of  the  god 
Yune-Tan  or  of  Hung-Sing  Wong,  the  god  of  the  Southern 
Ocean.  In  the  stern  sheets  of  the  boats  is  a  small  ancestral 
altar;  also  a  cupboard  for  the  crockery,  chop-sticks  and 
culinary  utensils  required  by  the  boatman  and  his  family. 
The  wife  and  daughter  stand  in  the  stern  to  manage  the 
scull,  and  in  the  bows  the  boatman  and  other  members  of 
his  family  use  oars.  On  the  bow  of  the  boat,  and  also  on 
the  stern,  is  pasted  a  piece  of  red  paper  on  which  mystic 
scrolls  are  written. 

Amongst  the  most  singular  boats,  however,  which  I  have 
seen  in  Chinese  waters,  are  the  long  narrow-beamed, 
snake-like  craft  which  are  to  be  found  on  the  rivers,  creeks 


BOATS  335 

and  canals  of  the  eastern  and  midland  provinces.  These 
boats  are  not  un frequently  used  as  post-boats,  and  as  such 
are  obliged  to  travel  night  and  day.  They  are  very  fast 
and  sometimes  traverse  a  distance  of  seventy  miles  between 
the  rising  and  setting  of  the  sun.  The  frail  craft  is  pro- 
pelled by  one  man,  who,  when  rowing,  wears  as  little  cloth- 
ing as  possible  in  the  summer  months.  He  sits  in  the  stern 
sheets,  and  with  his  feet  plies  a  short  but  broad  oar;  whilst 
with  another  oar,  the  handle  of  which  he  tucks  under  his  arm, 
he  directs  his  course.  In  each  of  these  boats  there  is  room 
for  one  passenger.  The  unhappy  traveller,  however,  is 
obliged,  whilst  the  boat  is  under  way,  to  place  himself  in  a 
recumbent  position. 

Boats  not  dissimilar  to  the  Chaong-Loong  and  called 
Tcha-Ho-Teng,  are  also  to  be  seen  on  the  Canton  River. 
These  boats  are  employed  by  water-policemen,  whose  duty 
it  is  to  row  guard  by  night.  These  night-guardians  of  the 
boat  population  announce  their  approach  by  blowing  conch 
shells,  the  shrill  notes  of  which  may  be  heard  at  all  hours 
of  the  night. 


THE  DRAGON  AND  OTHER  EMBLEMS 

J.  DYER  BALL 

CHINESE  art  is  enriched  with  many  emblems  full 
of  significance  to  the  initiated  and  the  native  ;  but 
generally  conveying  nothing  but  an  idea  of  quaint- 
ness  or  ornamentation  to  the  foreigner.  As  illustrative  of  a 
handmaid  of  native  art  which  gives  meaning  to  flower  and 
bird  and  animal  depicted  or  carved  or  embroidered  with  such 
lavish  profusion  by  the  painstaking  Chinese,  we  shall 
merely  note  a  few  of  the  emblematical  symbols  used. 

Bamboos,  chrysanthemums,  plum-blossoms  and  epiden- 
drums  represent  the  four  seasons — summer,  autumn,  winter 
and  spring. 

The  same  sound  stands  in  China  for  "  noble  rank  "  and 
"birds,"  hence  the  latter  are  emblems  of  the  former. 
Storks  mean  longevity.  As  the  same  sound  represents 
"  lotus  "  and  "  continuous  "  as  well,  the  use  of  "  lotus  "  is 
obvious.  The  peony  is  the  king  of  flowers  and  the  pictorial 
symbol  for  "  wealth."  The  bamboo  also  does  duty  for 
"  peace "  and  the  lotus  for  "  a  perfect  gentleman,"  too. 
Besides  the  seasons  they  typify,  the  plum  is  expressive  of 
purity  and  the  chrysanthemum  of  longevity. 

The  dragon  is  the  Imperial  emblem  of  China — the 
emblem  of  Imperial  power — and  is  symbolical  of  what  per- 


;  THE  DRAGON  AND  OTHER  EMBLEMS  337 

tains  to  the  Emperor :  his  person  is  called  "  the  dragon's 
person  "  5  his  countenance  "  the  dragon's  face  "  ;  his  eye, 
"  the  dragon's  eye "  i  his  hands  are  "  the  dragon's 
claws  "  j  his  sleeve  "  the  dragon's  sleeve  " ;  his  children 
are  "  the  dragon's  seed  " ;  his  pen  (that  is  the  Emperor's 
autograph),  "  the  dragon's  pen "  ;  his  throne  is  "  the 
dragon's  seat " ;  when  he  mounts  it,  the  action  is 
spoken  of  as  "  the  dragon's  flight " ;  his  bed  "  the 
dragon's  bedstead  "  ;  his  decease  is  euphemistically  termed 
"the  Emperor  ascended  upon  the  dragon  to  be  a  guest 
on  high  "  ;  and  his  ancestral  tablet  is  called  "  the  dragon 
tablet." 

The  dragon  which  is  reserved  for  Imperial  use  in  designs 
on  furniture,  porcelain  and  clothing,  is  depicted  with  five 
claws ;  that  in  use  by  the  common  people  has  four.  A 
Chinese  author  thus  describes  the  dragon  : 

"  Its  head  is  like  a  camel's,  its  horns  like  a  hare's,  its 
ears  like  a  bull's,  its  neck  like  a  snake's,  its  belly  like  an 
iguanodon's,  its  scales  like  a  carp,  its  claws  like  an  eagle's, 
and  its  paws  like  a  tiger's.  Its  scales  number  eighty-one, 
being  nine  by  nine,  the  extreme  (odd  or)  lucky  number. 
Its  voice  resembles  the  beating  of  a  gong.  On  each  side 
of  its  mouth  are  whiskers,  under  its  chin  is  a  bright  pearl, 
under  its  throat  the  scales  are  reversed,  on  the  top  of  its 
head  is  the  poh  shan,  which  others  call  the  cbek  muk.  A 
dragon  without  a  chek  muk  cannot  ascend  the  skies.  When 
its  breath  escapes  it  forms  clouds,  sometimes  changing  into 
rain,  at  other  times  into  fire." 


338  CHINA 

Having  thus  given  an  accurate  description  of  this  won- 
derful creature  (one  of  the  four  supernatural,  or  spiritually 
endowed,  creatures,  according  to  the  Chinese,  the  others 
being  the  Tortoise,  the  Lin  and  the  Feng),  it  only  remains 
to  be  said  that  "  it  wields  the  power  of  transformation  and 
the  gift  of  rendering  itself  visible  or  invisible  at  pleasure." 
Another  Chinese  authority  informs  us  that  "  the  dragon  be- 
comes at  will  reduced  to  the  size  of  a  silkworm,  or  swollen 
till  it  fills  the  space  of  Heaven  and  Earth.  It  desires  to 
mount — and  it  rises  till  it  affronts  the  clouds ;  to  sink — and 
it  descends  until  hidden  below  the  fountains  of  the  deep." 
The  Chinese  most  thoroughly  believe  in  the  existence  of 
this  mysterious  and  marvellous  creature :  it  appears  in  their 
ancient  history  j  the  legends  of  Buddhism  abound  with 
allusions  i  Taoist  tales  contain  accounts  of  its  doings  i 
the  whole  countryside  is  filled  with  stories  of  its  hidden 
abodes,  its  terrific  appearances  ;  while  it  holds  a  prominent 
place  in  the  pseudo-science  of  geomancy ;  its  portrait  ap- 
pears in  houses  and  temples,  and  serves  even  more  than 
the  grotesque  lion  as  an  ornament  in  architecture,  art  de- 
signs and  fabrics. 

There  are  numerous  dragons — too  numerous  to  enter 
even  into  a  succinct  account  of  them  in  the  space  of  a 
short  article.  Volumes  might  be  filled  with  a  history  of 
this  wonderful  antediluvian  creature,  embalmed  in  Chinese 
literature  and  memory. 

Among  other  roles  that  the  dragon  fills  is  that  of  a 
modern  Neptune  to  the  Chinese.  In  this  character  he  oc- 


THE  DRAGON  AND  OTHER  EMBLEMS  339 

cupies  a  palace  of  pearls  at  the  bottom  of  the  sea,  sends  rain 
and  waters  the  thirsty  land. 

Another  dragon  is  the  bob-tailed  dragon,  which  causes 
whirlwinds;  a  frightfully  destructive  one  in  Canton  City 
a  number  of  years  ago  was  believed  to  be  due  to  his 
agency. 

The  district  of  country  on  the  mainland  immediately  op- 
posite the  English  colony  of  Hong  Kong  is  called  Kaulung 
(generally  written  Kowloong  or  Kowloon),  or  the  Nine 
Dragons,  probably  so  named  from  the  numerous  ranges  of 
hills,  which,  like  gigantic  monsters,  spread  their  sinuous 
course  along  the  coast,  the  nine  dragons  being  a  favourite 
number  with  the  Chinese,  and  represented  in  some  of  their 
ancient  works  on  standards. 

The  national  flag  of  China  adopted  with,  and  by,  the 
navy  of  foreign-built  ships,  was  a  triangular  yellow  flag 
with  a  dragon  on  it,  now  changed  to  an  oblong  one  more 
in  keeping  with  the  shape  of  other  national  flags,  but  with 
the  same  device. 

The  conventional  representations  of  the  dragon,  as  we 
have  already  said,  are  commonly  divisible  into  two.  On 
Imperial  China  we  see  a  snake-like  body  mounted  on  four 
legs,  with  an  enormous  head ;  the  feet  are  five-clawed. 
This  is  sprawled  over  the  dish,  or  whatever  it  may  be,  and 
covers  the  greater  part  of  it.  On  vases  used  by  the  people 
as  ornaments,  a  scope  is  given  for  ingenuity  by  the  intro- 
duction of  a  number  of  saurians  (but  only  with  four  claws) 
in  different  positions  on  the  vase — front  views  being  given 


340  CHINA 

as  well,  in  which  the  two  horns  are  seen.  On  mural  pic- 
tures and  in  paintings  on  wood,  inserted  above  doorways, 
the  rain  dragon  is  the  one  usually  represented.  Here  what 
is  seen  of  the  hideous  monster  conveys  more  the  impression 
of  an  enormous  python,  as  folds  of  a  very  thick  and  large 
snake-like  body  are  visible  amongst  masses  of  clouds,  the 
half  suggestive  revelation  of  what  is  seen  increasing,  if  any- 
thing, the  impression  of  size,  while  a  frightful  head  fronts 
one,  full-faced,  with  all  its  gigantic  repulsiveness.  In  books 
printed  under  Imperial  sanction,  or  auspices,  two  dragons 
encircle  the  title,  striving  not  like  the  lion  and  the  unicorn 
for  the  crown,  but  for  a  pearl.  There  are  again  two  kinds 
of  dragons  carried  in  some  of  the  processions  of  which  the 
Chinese  are  so  fond.  They  are  at  such  times  represented 
as  long  serpentine  creatures  of  great  girth,  and  150  or  200 
feet  long,  made  of  lengths  of  gay,  bright-coloured  crape  and 
sparkling  with  tiny  spangle-like  mirrors.  Every  yard  or  so 
a  couple  of  human  feet — those  of  the  bearers — buskined  in 
gorgeous  silk,  are  visible,  the  head  and  shoulders  of  the 
men  being  unseen.  The  whole  is  fronted  by  an  enormous 
head  of  ferocious  aspect,  before  the  gaping  jaws  of  which  a 
man  manoeuvres  a  large  pearl  after  which  the  dragon 
prances  and  wiggles.  The  difference  between  the  two 
kinds  is  that  the  one  is  resplendent  with  gold  scales,  while 
the  other  gleams  with  silver  ones.  That  this  different  way 
of  representation  is  not  due  to  simple  fancy  appears  from 
the  fact  that  in  India  they  distinguish  three  varieties  of 
dragons :  one  of  which  lived  in  the  mountains  and  had 


THE  DRAGON  AND  OTHER  EMBLEMS  341 

golden  scales ;  the  other  in  caves  or  flat  country,  and  had 
silver  scales  ;  while  the  third  dwelt  in  marshes  or  fens  and 
was  of  a  black  colour.  The  rain  dragon  used  in  mural 
representations  appears  more  like  the  last. 


ARCHITECTURE 

ROBERT  K.  DO UGLAS 

WE  are  all  familiar  with  drawings  of  the  quaint 
roofs  with  their  upturned  corners,  which  char- 
acterize the  architecture  of  the  country.  The 
form  at  once  suggests  that,  as  is  probably  the  case,  this 
dominant  style  of  building  is  a  survival  of  the  tent-dwellings 
of  the  Tartar  peoples.  It  is  said  that  when  Genghis  Khan, 
the  founder  of  the  Mongol  dynasty,  invaded  China  in  the 
Thirteenth  Century,  his  followers,  on  possessing  themselves 
of  a  city,  reduced  the  houses  to  a  still  more  exact  counter- 
part of  their  origins  by  pulling  down  the  walls,  and  leaving 
the  roofs  supported  by  the  wooden  pillars  which  commonly 
bear  the  entire  weight  of  those  burdens.  What  at  once 
strikes  the  eye  in  the  appearance  of  a  Chinese  city,  even  of 
the  capital  itself,  is  the  invariable  sameness  in  the  style 
of  building.  Palaces  and  temples,  public  offices  and  dwell- 
ing-houses, are  built  on  one  constant  model.  No  spire,  no 
dome,  no  tower,  rises  to  relieve  the  monotony  of  the  scene, 
which  is  varied  only,  so  far  as  the  buildings  are  concerned, 
by  the  different  coloured  tiles — green,  yellow  and  brown — 
which  indicate  roughly  the  various  uses  which  the  build- 
ings they  cover  are  designed  to  serve  and  by  occasional 
pagodas,  reminding  us  of  the  faith  of  the  people.  In  his 


ARCHITECTURE  343 

History  of  Indian  and  Eastern  Architecture^  the  late  Mr.  Fer- 
gusson  suggested  as  a  reason  for  this  absence  of  variety  the 
fact  that  "  the  Chinese  never  had  either  a  dominant  priest- 
hood or  an  hereditary  nobility.  The  absence  of  the  former 
class  is  important,  because  it  is  to  sacred  art  that  architec- 
ture has  owed  its  highest  inspiration,  and  sacred  art  is  never 
so  strongly  developed  as  under  the  influence  of  a  powerful 
and  splendid  hierarchy.  In  the  same  manner  the  want  of 
an  hereditary  nobility  is  equally  unfavourable  to  domestic 
architecture  of  a  durable  description.  Private  feuds  and 
private  wars  were  till  lately  unknown,  and  hence  there  are 
no  fortalices,  or  fortified  mansions,  which  by  their  mass 
and  solidity  give  such  a  marked  character  to  a  certain  class 
of  domestic  edifices  in  the  West."  There  are,  however, 
other  factors  which  have  operated  even  more  powerfully 
than  these  two  in  producing  this  monotonous  conformity 
to  one  model,  and  that  is  the  sterility  of  the  imaginative 
powers  of  the  Chinese  people  and  the  steadfast  conserva- 
tism of  the  race.  Just  as  the  arts  and  sciences,  which 
in  the  dim  past  they  acquired  from  more  cultured  races  in 
Western  Asia,  have  remained  crystallized  in  the  stage  in 
which  they  received  them,  and  just  as  their  written  lan- 
guage has  not,  like  that  of  Ancient  Egypt  and  Assyria, 
advanced  beyond  a  primitive  phonetic  stage,  so  their  knowl- 
edge of  architecture  has  been  perpetuated  without  the 
smallest  symptom  of  development  or  the  least  spark  of 
genius.  Even  when  they  have  an  example  of  better  things 
before  them  they  deliberately  avert  their  eyes,  and  go  on 


344  CHINA 

repeating  the  same  type  of  mean  and  paltry  buildings.  All 
the  treaty  ports,  and  notably  at  Shanghai,  there  have  been 
reared  on  the  foreign  settlement  houses  in  every  kind  of 
Western  architecture,  bordering  wide  and  well-made  roads, 
and  provided  with  every  sanitary  improvement,  and  yet,  in 
the  adjoining  native  cities,  houses  are  daily  built  on  exactly 
the  original  models,  the  streets  are  left  as  narrow  and  filthy 
as  ever,  and  no  effort  is  made  to  improve  the  healthiness  of 
the  areas.  It  might  be  supposed  that  in  a  nation  where 
there  exists  such  a  profound  veneration  for  everything  that 
is  old,  the  people  would  have  striven  to  perpetuate  the 
glories  of  past  ages  in  great  and  noble  monuments,  that 
emperors  would  have  raised  palaces  to  themselves  as  records 
of  their  greatness,  and  that  the  magnates  of  the  land  would 
have  built  houses  which  should  endure  as  homes  for  genera- 
tions of  descendants.  But  it  would  seem  as  though  their 
nomadic  origin  haunted  them  in  this  also,  and  that  as  in 
shape  so  in  durability  "  the  recollection  of  their  old  tent- 
houses,  which  were  pitched  to-day  and  struck  to-morrow, 
still  dominates  their  ideas  of  what  palaces  and  houses  should 
be."  Throughout  the  length  and  breadth  of  China  there 
is  not  a  single  building,  except  it  may  be  some  few  pagodas, 
which  by  any  stretch  of  the  imagination  can  be  called  old. 
A  few  generations  suffice  to  see  the  stateliest  of  their 
palaces  crumble  into  decay,  and  a  few  centuries  are  enough 
to  obliterate  all  traces  even  of  royal  cities.  The  Mongol 
conqueror,  Kublai  Khan,  whose  wealth,  magnificence  and 
splendour  are  recorded  with  admiration  by  travellers,  built 


ARCHITECTURE  345 

for  himself  a  capital  near  the  city  of  Peking.  If  any  his- 
torian should  wish  to  trace  out  for  himself  the  features  of 
that  imperial  city,  he  would  be  compelled  to  seek  amid  the 
earth-covered  mounds  which  alone  mark  the  spot  where  the 
conqueror  held  his  court,  for  any  relics  which  may  perchance 
survive.  Above  ground  the  city,  with  all  its  barbaric  splen- 
dours, has  vanished  as  a  dream.  For  this  ephemeralness 
the  style  and  nature  of  the  buildings  are  responsible.  A 
Chinese  architect  invites  damp,  and  all  the  destructive  con- 
sequences which  follow  from  it,  by  building  his  house  on 
the  surface  of  the  soil ;  he  ensures  stability  by  basing  it  on 
the  shallowest  of  foundations,  and  he  makes  certain  of  its 
overthrow  by  using  materials  which  most  readily  decay. 
The  structure  consists  of  a  roof  supported  by  wooden 
pillars,  with  the  intervals  filled  in  with  badly  baked  bricks. 
It  is  strictly  in  accordance  with  the  topsy-turvy  Chinese 
methods  that  the  framework  of  the  roof  should  be  con- 
structed first,  before  even  the  pillars  which  are  to  support 
it  are  placed  in  position.  But,  like  most  of  the  other  con- 
tradictory practices  of  the  people,  this  one  is  capable  of 
rational  explanation.  Strange  as  it  may  seem,  the  pillars 
are  not  sunk  into  the  ground,  but  merely  stand  upon  stone 
foundations.  The  weight  of  the  roof  is  therefore  necessary 
for  their  support,  and  to  its  massive  proportions  is  alone 
attributable  the  temporary  substantialness  of  the  building. 
To  prevent  an  overthrow  the  summits  of  the  pillars  are 
bound  together  by  beams,  and  much  ingenuity  and  taste  is 
shown  in  the  adornment  of  the  ends  of  these  supports 


346  CHINA 

and  cross-pieces,  which  appear  beneath  the  eaves  of  the 
upturned  roof.  For  the  most  part  the  pillars  are  plain  and 
either  square  or  round,  and  at  the  base  are  slightly  cut  in, 
after  the  manner  of  the  pillars  in  the  temples  of  ancient 
Egypt.  Occasionally,  when  especial  honour,  either  due  to 
religious  respect  or  official  grandeur,  attaches  to  a  building, 
the  pillars  are  carved  into  representations  of  dragons,  ser- 
pents, or  winding  foliage,  as  the  taste  of  the  designer  may 
determine.  But  in  a  vast  majority  of  buildings  the  roof  is 
the  only  ornamented  part,  and  a  great  amount  of  pains  and 
skill  is  devoted  to  add  beauty  to  this  part  of  the  structure. 
A  favourite  method  of  giving  an  appearance  of  lightness  to 
the  covering  of  a  house  or  temple,  which  would  otherwise 
look  too  heavy  to  be  symmetrical,  is  to  make  a  double 
roof,  so  as  to  break  the  long  line  necessitated  by  a  single 
structure.  The  effect  produced  by  looking  down  on  a  city 
studded  with  temples  and  the  palaces  of  nobles  is,  so  far  as 
colour  is  concerned,  brilliant  and  picturesque,  and  reminds 
the  traveller  of  the  view  from  the  Kremlin  over  the  glitter- 
ing gilt-domed  churches  of  Moscow. 

The  damp  from  the  soil  which  is  so  detrimental  to  the 
stability  of  the  building  is  made  equally  injurious  to  the  in- 
habitants by  the  fact  that  all  dwellings  consist  of  the  ground 
floor  only.  With  very  rare  exceptions  such  a  thing  as  an 
upper  story  is  unknown  in  China,  one  reason,  no  doubt, 
being  that  neither  the  foundations  nor  the  materials  are 
sufficiently  trustworthy  to  support  anything  higher  than  the 
ground  floor.  The  common  symbol  for  a  house  indicates 


ARCHITECTURE  347 

the  ground  plan  on  which  dwellings  of  the  better  kind  are 
designed.  It  is  one  which  is  compounded  of  parts  mean- 
ing a  square  within  a  doorway.  On  entering  the  front 
door  the  visitor  passes  into  a  courtyard,  on  either  side  of 
which  are  dwelling-rooms,  and  at  the  end  of  which  is  a  hall 
with  probably  rooms  at  both  extremities.  Doors  at  the 
back  of  this  hall  communicate  with  another  courtyard,  and 
in  cases  of  wealthy  families,  a  third  courtyard  succeeds, 
which  is  devoted  to  the  ladies  of  the  household.  Beyond 
this  is  the  garden,  and  in  the  case  of  country  houses,  a 
park.  The  whole  enclosure  is  surrounded  with  a  blank 
wall,  which  is  pierced  only  by  the  necessary  doors.  All 
the  windows  face  inwards.  To  the  wayfarer,  therefore,  the 
appearance  of  houses  of  the  better  sort  is  monotonous  and 
drear,  and  suggests  a  want  of  life  which  is  far  from  the 
actual  fact,  and  a  desire  for  privacy  which,  so  far  as  the 
apartments  devoted  to  the  male  inmates  are  concerned,  is 
equally  wide  of  the  mark.  In  accordance  with  Chinese 
custom,  the  front  courtyard  may  be  considered  to  be  open 
to  any  one  who  may  choose  to  wander  in,  and  a  desire  to 
exclude  all  strangers  would  be  held  to  argue  that  there  was 
something  wrong  going  on  which  the  owner  wished  to  con- 
ceal. The  courtyards  are  decorated  with  flowers  and  vases 
according  to  the  taste  of  the  inhabitants,  and  occasionally 
a  forest  tree  arises  in  their  midst,  which  gives  a  grateful 
shade  from  the  heat  of  the  day.  The  rooms  when  well 
furnished  are  rather  artistically  pretty  than  comfortable. 
To  begin  with,  the  floors  are  either  of  pounded  clay  or  of 


348  CHINA 

badly  made  bricks.  No  carpet,  except  in  the  north  of  the 
country,  protects  the  feet  from  the  damp  foundation,  and  if 
it  were  not  the  thick  wadded  soles  of  the  shoes  worn  and 
the  prevailing  habit  of  reclining  on  divans,  and  of  sitting 
cross-legged,  the  result  to  the  health  of  the  people  would  be 
very  serious. 

The  following  is  a  description  of  one  of  the  Foos,  or 
ducal  residences  in  Peking. 

"  A  Foo  has  in  front  of  it  two  stone  lions,  with  a  house 
for  musicians  and  for  gatekeepers.  Through  a  lofty  gate- 
way, on  which  are  hung  tablets  inscribed  with  the  owner's 
titles,  the  visitor  enters  a  large  square  court  with  a  paved 
terrace  in  the  centre  which  fronts  the  principal  hall. 
Here,  on  days  of  ceremony,  the  slaves  and  defendants  may 
be  ranged  in  reverential  posture  before  the  owner,  who  sits, 
as  the  master  of  the  household,  in  the  hall.  Behind  the 
principal  hall  are  two  other  halls,  both  facing,  like  it,  the 
south.  These  buildings  all  have  five  or  seven  compart- 
ments, divided  by  pillars  which  support  the  roof,  and  the 
three  or  five  in  the  centre  are  left  open  to  form  one  large 
hall,  while  the  sides  are  partitioned  off  to  make  rooms. 
Beyond  the  gable  there  is  usually  an  extension  called  the 
Urfang,  literally  the  ear-house,  from  its  resemblance  in 
position  to  that  organ.  On  each  side  of  the  large  courts 
fronting  the  hall  are  side  houses  of  one  or  two  stories. 
The  garden  of  a  Foo  is  on  the  west  side,  and  is  usually  ar- 
ranged as  an  ornamental  park,  with  a  lake,  wooded  mounds, 
fantastic  arbours,  small  Buddhist  temples,  covered  passages, 


ARCHITECTURE  349 

and  a  large  open  hall  for  drinking  tea  and  entertaining 
guests,  which  is  called  Hwat'ing.  Garden  and  house  are 
kept  private,  and  effectually  guarded  from  the  intrusion  of 
strangers  by  a  high  wall,  and  at  the  doors  by  a  numerous 
staff  of  messengers.  The  stables  are  usually  on  the  east 
side  and  contain  stout  Mongol  ponies,  large  Hi  horses  and 
a  good  supply  of  sleek,  well-kept  mules,  such  as  North 
China  furnishes  in  abundance.  A  prince  or  princess  has  a 
retinue  of  about  twenty,  mounted  on  ponies  or  mules." 

By  something  more  than  a  sumptuary  law,  all  houses  of 
any  pretension  face  southward,  and  their  sites,  far  from 
being  left  to  the  mere  choice  of  the  proprietors,  are  deter- 
mined for  them  by  the  rules  and  regulations  of  Feng  Shui. 
This  Feng  Shui  is  that  which  places  a  preliminary  stum- 
bling-block in  the  way  of  every  Western  improvement.  If 
a  railway  is  proposed,  the  objection  is  at  once  raised  that  it 
would  destroy  the  Feng  Shui  of  the  neighbourhood  by  dis- 
turbing the  sepulchres  of  the  dead.  If  a  line  of  telegraph  is 
suggested,  the  promoters  are  promptly  told  that  the  shadows 
thrown  by  the  wires  on  the  houses  they  pass  would  outrage 
the  Feng  Shui  of  the  neighbourhood  and  bring  disaster  and 
death  in  their  train. 

In  front  of  every  house  which  is  protected  at  the  rear  by 
the  approved  genial  influences,  there  should  be  a  pond,  and 
the  approach  to  the  door  should  be  winding  for  the  double 
purpose  of  denying  a  direct  mode  of  egress  to  the  fortunate 
breath  of  nature  secured  by  the  conditions  of  the  site,  and 
of  preventing  the  easy  ingress  of  malign  influences.  For 


350  CHINA 

the  same  reason  a  movable  screen  is  commonly  placed  in 
the  open  doorway  of  a  house,  which,  while  standing  in  the 
way  of  the  admission  of  supernatural  evil,  effectually  wards 
off  the  very  actual  discomfort  of  a  draught.  With  equal 
advantage  a  pair  of  stone  lions  placed  at  the  doorway  of  a 
house  which  is  unfortunate  enough  to  be  faced  by  a  straight 
lane  or  street  are  said  to  overcome  the  noxious  currents 
which  might  be  tempted  by  the  direct  access  to  attack  the 
dwelling. 

Temple  architecture  differs  little  from  that  of  the  houses 
and  varies  in  the  same  way  from  splendour  to  squalor, 
from  gorgeous  shrines  built  with  the  costly  woods  of 
Borneo  and  roofed  in  with  resplendent  glazed  tiles  to  lath- 
and-plaster  sheds  covered  in  with  mud  roofing.  In  country 
districts,  and  more  especially  in  hilly  regions,  Buddhists 
show  a  marked  predilection  for  the  most  sheltered  and 
beautiful  spots  provided  by  nature  and  there  rear  monasteries 
which  might  well  tempt  men  of  less  ascetic  mould  than 
they  profess  to  be  made  of  to  assume  the  cowl.  The  con- 
templative life  which  they  are  in  theory  supposed  to  lead 
is  held  to  tempt  them  to  retire  from  the  busy  haunts  of 
men  and  to  seek  in  the  deep  ravines  and  sheltered  valleys 
the  repose  and  quiet  which  in  more  public  positions  would 
be  denied  them.  It  says  much  for  the  charity  of  the  people 
that  out  of  their  poverty  such  sumptuous  edifices  can  be 
raised  to  the  glory  of  Buddha.  Many  owe  their  existence 
to  the  beneficence  of  emperors  and  others  to  the  supersti- 
tion of  notables  who,  in  the  performance  of  vows,  have 


ARCHITECTURE  351 

reared  stately  temples  to  the  beneficent  avatars  of  Buddha 
who  have  listened  to  their  prayers.  The  majority,  how- 
ever, are  built  from  the  doles  secured  by  the  priests  from 
the  wretched  resources  of  the  people. 

It  is  impossible  to  leave  the  architecture  of  the  country 
without  saying  one  word  about  the  bridges  which  span  the 
canals  and  rivers.  For  the  most  part  these  are  high  wooden 
structures  such  as  those  with  which  the  willow-pattern 
plates  have  made  us  familiar,  but  occasionally,  and  espe- 
cially on  the  highways  to  the  capital,  substantial  stone 
bridges  stretching  in  a  series  of  arches  across  the  streams 
are  met  with,  carefully  wrought  and  adorned  with  all  kinds 
of  fantastic  devices.  A  noticeable  instance  of  a  bridge  of 
this  kind  is  one  which  crosses  the  river  Hwen  on  the  west 
of  Peking.  Though  upwards  of  six  hundred  years  old,  its 
neighbourhood  to  the  capital  has  secured  its  preservation. 
Its  length  is  seven  hundred  feet  and  at  its  narrowest  part 
the  roadway  is  twelve  feet  wide.  Stone  lions  of  varied 
and  quaint  shapes  stand  at  intervals  along  the  parapets, 
and  in  such  numbers  that,  according  to  local  legend,  no 
one  has  been  able  to  count  them  correctly.  For  the  most 
part,  however,  the  condition  of  the  bridges  throughout  the 
country  is  deplorable.  Carters  and  horsemen  cross  them  at 
imminent  peril  to  life  and  limb,  and  had  not  the  animals 
learnt  to  pick  their  way  with  as  much  caution  as  that 
practised  by  travellers  on  foot,  the  passage  would  often  be 
impossible. 


PAGODAS 

JOHN  HENRY  GRAY 

NO  one  can  visit  China  without  admiring  its 
numerous  pagodas.  These  are  erected  in  or 
near  cities,  often  on  the  banks  of  rivers  and 
streams.  They  are  of  various  kinds.  Those  of  the  first 
class  are  lofty  and  graceful  towers,  consisting  of  seven,  or 
nine  stories  ;  in  some  instances  of  thirteen.  The  towers, 
which  are  generally  octagonal,  diminish  in  height  and  width 
as  they  ascend,  and  above  each  story  there  is  a  projecting 
roof  of  tiles.  These  are  generally  glazed  and  of  a  green 
colour,  and  each  corner  of  the  roof  is  ornamented  with  a 
bell.  As  a  rule,  pagodas  are  built  of  bricks,  the  facing 
being  often  of  stone.  In  some  parts  of  the  empire  they 
are  made  of  iron.  Thus,  for  example,  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  the  city  of  Chin-Kiang  I  saw  one  of  iron  consist- 
ing of  nine  stories.  This  structure,  which  is  not  more 
than  sixty  or  seventy  feet  in  height,  stands  within  the 
grounds  of  the  Kham-Loo  Sze  or  Sweet  Dew  Monastery. 
It  is  of  great  antiquity,  having  been  erected  during  the 
Tong  dynasty,  and  on  each  of  its  sides  are  numerous  repre- 
sentations of  Buddha.  The  monastery,  which  is  famous  in 
Chinese  annals,  stands  on  a  hill  and  commands  a  very 
extensive  and  charming  view  of  the  surrounding  country. 


PAGODAS  353 

At  Nankang  Foo  on  the  banks  of  the  Poyang  Lake,  I  saw, 
five  miles  from  the  gates  of  the  city,  a  graceful  pagoda 
standing  on  the  top  of  a  peak  which  rises  two  thousand 
feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  in  the  form  of  a  sugar-loaf, 
from  the  rocky  sides  of  the  Loo  Shan  range.  This  pagoda, 
I  afterwards  learned,  is  made  of  iron,  and  upon  each  of  its 
sides,  as  on  the  iron  pagoda  at  Chin-Kiang,  are  representa- 
tions of  Buddha  in  relief. 

The  ascent  from  story  to  story  is  effected  by  a  spiral 
staircase  consisting  of  stone  steps,  and  constructed  within 
the  outer  and  inner  walls,  of  which  almost  all  pagodas  con- 
sist. The  most  beautiful  pagoda  which  I  visited  was  that 
at  Woo-see,  a  city  on  the  banks  of  the  Grand  Canal.  The 
largest  which  I  saw  was  that  at  Soo-chow,  also  on  the 
banks  of  the  Grand  Canal.  The  circumference  of  the 
base  of  this  tower  is  about  200  feet.  It  consists  of  two 
walls,  an  outer  and  an  inner,  between  which  the  staircase 
winds  to  the  summit.  There  are  nine  stories,  each  con- 
taining within  the  inner  wall  a  spacious  chamber  paved 
with  limestone  flags,  and  entered  at  each  of  its  eight  sides 
by  an  arch.  These  chambers  reminded  me  of  so  many 
churches  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre.  In  the  walls  there  were 
niches,  which  were  probably  at  one  time  occupied  by  idols 
of  Buddha.  The  pagodas  do  not  appear  to  be  plumb  in 
every  case,  and  two  or  three  of  those  I  visited  were  cer- 
tainly leaning  towers.  For  example,  the  pagoda  on  the 
summit  of  the  Hoo-choo  Shan,  near  Soo-chow,  reminded 
me  greatly  of  views  which  I  have  seen  of  the  leaning  tower 


354  CHINA 

of  Pisa.  This  structure,  which,  like  the  Soo-chow  pagoda, 
consists  of  two  walls,  each  six  or  seven  feet  in  thickness, 
was  erected  during  the  Hon  dynasty,  and  bears  every  mark 
of  great  antiquity. 

In  some  of  the  provinces  there  are  square  pagodas. 
Amongst  the  most  beautiful  square  pagodas  which  I  have 
seen,  I  may  mention  one  at  Woo-chang,  a  city  on  the  banks 
of  the  Tai-Hoi  or  Great  Lake,  and  another  at  Song-Kong, 
a  city  not  far  distant  from  Shanghai.  These  pagodas  are 
from  1 20  feet  10-130  feet  in  height. 

The  origin  of  pagodas  is  still  involved  in  more  or  less  of 
obscurity,  although  much  has  been  said  and  written  upon 
the  subject.  From  their  being  built  so  frequently  upon  the 
banks  of  rivers  or  creeks,  it  has  been  supposed  that  they 
were  designed  to  serve  in  the  first  instance  as  beacons  to 
announce  the  approach  of  invading  fleets  or  armies.  This 
is  a  supposition,  however,  which  need  not  be  discussed. 
The  importance  of  building  pagodas  as  towers  sacred  to 
Buddha  was  probably  in  the  first  instance  impressed  upon 
the  minds  of  the  Chinese  by  the  Indian  bonzes  who  came 
as  Buddhist  missionaries  to  China  in  the  early  part  of  the 
Christian  Era;  and  it  appears  that  these  structures  were  un- 
known in  the  empire  until  the  introduction  of  Buddhism. 
The  pagodas  of  China,  though  they  differ  in  point  of  archi- 
tecture from  the  Gopuras  or  tower  temples  of  the  Hindoos, 
are  analogous  structures;  and  it  is  customary  to  find  in 
many  of  the  most  ancient  of  them  representations  of  Bud- 
dhistical  deities. 


PAGODAS  355 

In  not  a  few  instances  pagodas  are  erected  within  the 
precincts  of  Buddhist  temples,  the  court  by  which  they  are 
enclosed  being  often  of  considerable  extent.  For  example, 
in  the  first  court  of  a  large  Buddhist  temple  in  the  city  of 
Shee-Moon  on  the  banks  of  the  Grand  Canal,  there  are  two 
pagodas  which  from  their  appearance  I  was  disposed  to  con- 
clude were  structures  of  a  very  early  date.  In  the  vicinity 
of  the  city  of  Soong-Kong,  also  on  the  banks  of  the  Grand 
Canal,  I  visited  a  Buddhist  temple,  in  the  courtyard  of  which 
there  was  a  very  lofty  and  graceful  pagoda.  In  the  south- 
ern provinces,  also,  we  often  find  pagodas  erected  in  the 
courtyards  of  Buddhist  temples.  Thus,  the  walls  of  the 
Luk-yoong  Sze  monastery,  situate  in  the  Tchutin  Kai 
street  of  the  city  of  Canton,  contain  the  famous  Flowery 
Pagoda,  erected  during  the  Liang  dynasty  in  the  Sixth  Cen- 
tury of  the  Christian  Era.  It  was  erected  by  one  Su  Yu,  a 
governor  of  Canton,  at  the  suggestion  of  a  Buddhist  abbot, 
named  Tarn  Yu,  as  a  necessary  appendage  over  which  the 
abbot  presided.  It  has  an  extremely  weather-beaten  ap- 
pearance. It  is  said  that  when  the  work  of  building  it  was 
brought  to  a  close,  the  builder,  who  was  named  Laong 
Tai-toong,  predicted  that  if  ever  the  vane,  which  consisted 
of  nine  iron  balls  placed  on  a  perpendicular  rod,  fell  down, 
evil  would  befall  the  city.  To  prevent  the  fulfillment  of 
this  prediction,  the  authorities  at  Canton  and  the  people 
have  at  various  times  throughout  the  course  of  centuries  ex- 
pended their  funds  in  keeping  the  structure  in  good  repair. 
About  five  or  six  hundred  years  ago  it  was  thoroughly  re- 


356  CHINA 

paired  by  a  famous  Chinese  architect  of  that  period,  named 
Loo-Pan,  a  worthy  who  was  canonized  at  his  death  and 
whose  idol  is  now  worshipped  in  many  temples  by  car- 
penters and  joiners  as  the  tutelary  deity  of  their  craft. 
After  the  repairs  which  the  pagoda  underwent  at  the  hands 
of  Loo-Pan  it  was  neglected  for  several  years  and  220  years 
ago  the  vane  fell.  Within  a  few  months  after  it  had  fallen, 
the  city  was  invaded  by  the  Tartars.  The  invasion  was 
crowned  with  success,  and  the  Tartar  dynasty  Tai-Tsing, 
which  superseded  that  of  Ming,  rules  to  this  day  over  the 
fair  provinces  of  the  Celestial  land. 

The  Cantonese  of  that  period  felt  deeply  the  fulfillment 
of  a  prophecy  made  so  many  centuries  before,  and  at  once 
resolved  to  re-erect  the  vane.  The  resolution  was  speedily 
carried  into  effect;  and  the  dread  of  troubles  again  befalling 
the  city  should  the  vane  once  more  fall  to  the  ground, 
caused  them  to  pay  careful  attention  to  the  pagoda  for  sev- 
eral years.  Like  all  Chinese  institutions,  however,  it  came 
to  be  neglected;  and  in  the  month  of  August,  1856,  the 
vane  again  fell  with  a  heavy  crash,  breaking  the  roof  of  an 
adjoining  temple,  and  striking  a  priest  who  was  in  the  act 
of  saying  matins  to  Buddha.  When  the  Cantonese  discov- 
ered that  the  vane  of  the  pagoda  had  again  fallen,  they  in- 
quired eagerly  of  the  soothsayers  what  calamities  were  likely 
to  befall  the  city.  The  mystery  was  soon  disclosed,  for  in 
the  following  month,  September,  the  affair  of  the  lorcha 
Arrow  took  place,  which  led  to  an  angry  and  unsatisfactory 
correspondence  between  the  English  and  Chinese  offiicals. 


PAGODAS  357 

In  the  following  month  of  October,  Sir  Michael  Seymour 
declared  war  against  the  Viceroy  Yeh,  and  proceeded  to 
bombard  the  city — a  measure  which  eventually  led  to  a 
general  war  with  China. 

Many  pagodas  have  been  erected  by  private  individuals 
as  evidences  of  the  pious  feeling  of  willing  sacrifice, 
or  the  generous  wish  to  do  something  for  the  glory  of 
Buddha.  At  Tung-chow,  there  is  one  of  thirteen  stories, 
which  was  erected  out  of  funds  contributed  by  pious 
Chinese  ladies  residing  in  the  cities  of  Tung-chow  and 
Peking,  which  are  within  a  distance  of  ten  miles  from  each 
other. 

In  the  Fifteenth  Century  they  were  sometimes  built  to 
perpetuate  the  memories  of  distinguished  men  and  women. 
Native  writers  inform  us  that  the  once  famous  porcelain 
pagoda  at  Nanking  was  erected  in  the  year  of  our  Lord 
1413,  by  the  third  sovereign  of  the  royal  house  of  Ming,  in 
sign  of  his  gratitude  towards  his  mother.  It  is  also  stated 
by  native  writers  that  in  order  to  exercise  a  good  influence 
over  the  city  of  Nanking  and  its  environs,  no  fewer  than 
five  pearls  of  great  price  were  placed  on  the  roof  of  the 
pagoda.  One  was  to  prevent  the  overflowing  of  the  ad- 
jacent river  Yangtsze;  a  second  to  ward  off  conflagra- 
tions ;  a  third  to  avert  tempestuous  winds  ;  a  fourth  to  check 
the  prevalence  of  dust-storms;  and  a  fifth  called  a  night 
shining  pearl,  to  render  futile  all  attempts  made  to  disturb 
the  peace  during  the  hours  of  darkness.  The  outer  walls 
of  this  once  graceful  tower  were  built  of  bricks  of  the  finest 


358  CHINA 

white  porcelain.  The  Chinese  say,  however,  that  the  pre- 
dominating colour  of  the  pagoda  was  green,  owing  in  a  great 
measure  to  the  fact  that  the  eaves  by  which  each  story  was 
defined  were  of  that  colour.  The  inner  walls,  it  appears, 
were  built  of  ordinary  bricks  of  clay  and  not  of  porcelain, 
as  the  Western  world  has  been  led  to  suppose.  They  were, 
however,  encased  by  fine  porcelain  bricks,  yellow  and  red, 
and,  like  the  porcelain  bricks  forming  the  outer  walls,  so 
richly  enamelled  as  to  impart  a  very  imposing  appearance  to 
the  structure.  This  pagoda  was  an  octagon,  and  nine 
stories  high,  each  story  being  nearly  thirty  English  feet 
in  height.  As  with  Chinese  pagodas  in  general,  the  summit 
was  crowned  with  a  large  gilded  ball,  fixed  to  the  top  of  a 
strong  iron  rod  or  bar,  which  was  encircled  by  nine  iron 
rings,  each  of  considerable  circumference.  The  time  occu- 
pied in  building  the  pagoda  is  said  to  have  been  nineteen 
years,  and  the  sum  of  money  expended  not  less  than  200,- 
ooo  pounds  sterling.  The  city  of  Nanking  was  captured 
by  the  rebels  in  the  year  1853,  and  in  1856  these  Vandals 
razed  to  the  ground  the  porcelain  tower  which  for  upwards 
of  four  centuries  had  been  regarded  as  one  of  the  wonders 
of  the  world.  The  citizens  of  Nanking  say  that  this  act 
was  the  result  of  a  speech  made  by  one  of  the  rebel  kings, 
of  whom  there  were  several,  during  the  course  of  an 
angry  conversation  with  his  colleagues.  He  said  that  from 
the  pagoda  in  question  he  would  bombard  and  witness  the 
downfall  of  Nanking,  and  with  the  downfall  of  the  city  the 
defeat  and  disgrace  of  his  coadjutors.  These  immediately 


PAGODAS  359 

issued  an  order  for  the  destruction  of  the  pagoda,  and,  un- 
fortunately for  antiquities  and  fine  arts,  the  order  was 
promptly  obeyed. 

I  visited  Nanking  in  the  month  of  January,  1866,  and  on 
arriving  at  the  place  where  the  pagoda  stood,  I  did  not  find 
one  stone  left  upon  another. 

Pagodas  also  seem  to  have  been  erected  on  the  ground 
that  they  exercise  a  good  geomantic  influence  over  the 
fields,  hills,  rivers  and  groves,  as  well  as  towns  and  villages 
in  their  vicinity. 

In  Mongolia  I  saw  only  one  pagoda.  It  is  situated  in 
the  imperial  hunting-grounds  of  the  city  of  Jehole,  and  is 
by  far  the  most  beautiful  of  all  the  pagodas  I  have  ever 
seen.  It  is  nine  stories  high  and  is  surmounted  by  a  gilded 
dome. 

Besides  pagodas  of  the  first  class,  consisting  of  seven, 
nine,  or  thirteen  stories,  there  are  others  which  consist  of 
three  or  five  stories.  Those  constituting  the  second  class 
are  very  numerous  in  the  south,  and  are,  as  a  rule,  called 
literary  pagodas,  and  occasionally  pencil  pagodas,  from  their 
supposed  resemblance  to  a  Chinese  pen  or  pencil.  They 
are  found  not  so  generally  in  the  vicinity  of  cities  and  towns 
as  in  the  neighbourhood  of  villages  and  on  the  banks  of 
rivers,  streams  and  creeks.  Like  those  of  the  first  class, 
they  are  considered  to  exercise  a  good  geomantic  influence 
over  the  adjacent  country,  causing  peace,  wealth  and  litera- 
ture to  flourish  and  abound.  The  most  beautiful  pagodas 
of  this  class  which  I  visited  were  one  situate  at  Shek-moon, 


360  CHINA 

a  village  about  eight  miles  to  the  west  of  Canton,  another 
near  Kow-pew,  a  village  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  Fa-tee, 
Canton,  and  a  third  at  Teng-yune,  a  district  city  in  the 
province  of  Kwang-si. 


PORCELAIN  AND  POTTERY 

J.  DTER  BALL 

THE  word  porcelain,  it  is  said,  was  introduced  by 
the  Portuguese  (in  the  Sixteenth  Century)  who 
first  brought  such  ware  in  any  quantity  to  Europe 
from  China.  The  name  "  refers  to  the  exterior  appearance 
resembling  the  shining  white  of  the  Cypraea  or  porcelain 
shell  (Portuguese  porcellana),  so  called  from  its  carved  upper 
surface  being  supposed  to  resemble  the  rounded  back  of  a 
porcella,  or  little  hog." 

Marco  Polo  saw  the  manufacture  of  it  in  China  in  A.  D. 
1280  and  informs  us  that  it  was  sent  all  over  the  world,  and 
evidences  of  this  early  trade  in  it  are  found  in  India,  Persia, 
Egypt,  Malayia  and  Zanzibar. 

The  Chinese  from  the  most  ancient  times  have  cultivated 
the  art  of  welding  clay,  and  they  claim  the  invention  of  the 
potter's  wheel,  like  most  of  the  great  nations  of  antiquity. 
Like  the  origin  of  many  Chinese  things,  the  invention  of 
porcelain  is  shrouded  in  the  mists  of  antiquity,  and  no  cer- 
tain date  can  be  assigned  to  it.  It  is  generally  ascribed  by 
them  to  the  ancient  Emperor  Shun,  who  is  supposed  to 
have  reigned  during  the  third  millennium  B.  c. ;  but  some 
attribute  it  to  his  more  famous  predecessor,  Huang  Ti,  who  is 
given  a  Director  of  Pottery  among  the  officers  of  his  court. 


362  CHINA 

Some  have  been  sceptical  enough  to  suppose  that  it  was 
not  known  "long  if  at  all,  before  the  Ming  dynasty  (A.  D. 
1368),"  while  again,  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  asserted  that 
porcelain  was  invented  when,  in  the  middle  of  the  Ninth 
Century,  certain  pieces  were  produced  of  a  white  colour, 
like  ivory,  and  giving  a  clear  sound  when  struck. 

It  is  supposed  that  the  Chinese  endeavoured  to  imitate 
ivory  in  their  whole  porcelain,  which  is  known  in  France 
as  blanc  de  chine. 

The  cups  produced  at  Ta-i  of  this  ware  have  had  their 
praises  sung  by  Tu  Fu,  a  poet  of  the  T'ang  dynasty.  The 
decorations  were  effected  before  the  baking,  and  were  not 
elaborate,  being  confined  to  such  subjects  as  fish,  flowers, 
etc. 

"  This  was  the  time  when  the  cobalt  decorations  under 
glaze  were  first  employed,  which  from  then  till  now  have 
played  such  an  important  part  in  the  ornamentation  of  Chi- 
nese porcelain,  especially  for  domestic  use  among  the  Chi- 
nese themselves." 

The  paste  of  porcelain-ware  is  prepared  usually  from  two 
ingredients ;  these  are  finely  mixed  and  pulverized  ;  the  one 
is  known  as  Kaolin,  so  called,  it  is  said,  from  a  hill  to  the 
east  of  the  Chinese  Imperial  Porcelain  manufactory,  King- 
teh-chin,  Kao  meaning  high  in  Chinese  and  I'm  (properly 
ling\  a  ridge  or  high  peak,  which  hill,  however,  does  not 
yield  the  product  of  decomposition  which  we  in  Europe  call 
Kaolin  ("  porcelain  or  pipe-clay  "),  but  a  phyllite,  whose 
chemical  composition  resembles  that  of  the  Swedish  Hal- 


PORCELAIN  AND  POTTERY  363 

leflinta  (?)  j  the  other  ingredient  consists  of  some  mineral 
"  rich  in  silicic  acid,  the  so-called  flux — usually  felspar  or 
pegmatite  porcelain  stone  (  .  .  .  these  porcelain  stones, 
which  are  wanting  in  our  porcelain  industry,  contribute 
greatly  to  that  of  China  and  Japan),  or  some  other  white- 
burning  form  of  quartz  is  used  in  the  finer  ceramics." 
The  proportion  of  the  two  and  the  degree  of  heat  in  firing 
depend  upon  whether  porcelain  or  faience  is  to  be  pro- 
duced. Some  of  the  colours  which  were  used  by  the  Chi- 
nese six  hundred  years  ago  to  decorate  their  porcelain,  we 
are  not  yet  able  to  imitate.  The  white  Ting  porcelain 
would  appear  to  have  been  in  existence  during  the  Seventh 
Century.  The  Ting-Yao  was  made  at  Ting-Chau  in 
Chihli,  whence  its  name.  It  was  also  known  as  white 
Ting  porcelain  from  its  colour  being  mostly  of  a  brilliant 
white.  It  is  probably  one  of  the  earliest  kinds.  There 
were  three  varieties  of  it — plain,  smooth  and  that  having 
ornaments  in  relief.  The  sign  of  its  being  genuine  is  that 
of  having  marks  like  tears  on  it.  It  is  to  be  distinguished 
from  the  creamy  white  of  another  species  of  porcelain,  the 
Kien-yiU)  made  in  Fuhkien.  Commencing  with  the  begin- 
ning of  the  Seventh  Century,  it  seems  probable  that  the 
manufacture  of  porcelain  "  began  to  flourish  in  various 
parts  of  the  Empire."  Of  the  different  kinds  produced 
during  the  T'ang  dynasty,  no  specimens,  as  far  as  is  known, 
are  extant,  but  those  of  the  Sung  period  are  to  be  found  in 
the  market ;  these,  from  their  age,  command  a  good  price. 
Unfortunately,  however,  many  of  this  period  were  of  such 


364  CHINA 

a  delicate  make  as  to  be  unfitted  for  survival  during  the 
centuries  that  have  intervened.  Some,  especially  those  of 
an  indestructible  nature,  have  been  handed  down ;  the 
others  are  only  known  from  the  descriptions  given  of  them 
in  books.  Amongst  the  best  of  them  were  the  Ch'en  and 
Ju  kinds.  The  Ju  was  of  a  pale  bluish-green. 

At  the  same  time  as  the  Ta-i  cups,  mentioned  above, 
were  produced  at  Yueh-chow  for  the  Emperor's  use,  the 
class  of  porcelain  styled  Pi-se  was  made ;  the  colour  de- 
scribed as  "  a  hidden  colour  "  has  given  rise  to  some  dis- 
cussion as  to  the  precise  meaning.  So  fine  was  certain 
porcelain  made  here  that  it  was  described  "  as  transparent 
as  jade  and  so  resonant  as  to  be  used  in  sets  of  twelve  to 
play  tunes  upon."  But  few,  if  any,  specimens  of  these 
ancient  examples  of  ceramic  art  are  in  existence.  No  kind 
of  painted  decoration  appears  to  have  been  used  before  the 
Sung  dynasty,  as  writers  are  silent  about  anything  of  the 
kind. 

The  Tenth  Century  is  marked  by  progress,  both  in  the 
perfected  operations  and  in  the  art  of  the  decorator,  which 
felt  the  influence  of  Buddhist  bringing  Indian  art  in  its 
train,  and  improving  the  taste  of  the  natives.  The  Chinese 
describe  the  porcelain  produced  at  this  epoch  (A.  D.  960)  in 
the  following  terms  : — "  Blue  as  the  sky,  bright  as  a  mirror, 
fragile  as  paper,  and  sonorous  as  a  plaque  of  jade  stone ; 
they  were  lustrous  and  of  a  charming  delicacy ;  the  fine- 
ness of  the  crackle  and  the  purity  of  colour  are  distin- 
guishing features  of  them :  they  eclipse  by  their  beauty 


PORCELAIN  AND  POTTERY  365 

all  preceding  porcelains."  They  were  called  by  the 
highly  poetical  name  of  yu  kwo  tien  tsing,  "  cerulean  blue  in 
the  cloud  rifts  as  it  appears  after  the  showers ; "  they  were 
highly  valued  and  even  broken  fragments  were  treasured  up 
as  jewels  would  be  and  formed  into  ornaments.  We  shall 
find  that  later  on  these  were  imitated  with  good  effect. 

Amongst  numerous  manufactories  opened  then  through- 
out the  empire,  that  of  King-teh-chin  in  Kiangsi,  es- 
tablished in  A.  D.  1004,  takes  the  preeminence.  It  is  still 
the  Imperial  manufactory  and  supplies  all  the  fine  porcelain 
used  in  the  country.  It  was  almost  wholly  destroyed  by 
the  T'ai-p'ing  rebellion.  A  million  workmen  were  em- 
ployed there  previous  to  that  event,  when  they  were  dis- 
persed, either  joining  the  insurgent  ranks  or  dying  of  want ; 
but  according  to  latest  accounts  these  manufactories  are  re- 
suming their  prosperity  ;  five  hundred  kilns,  it  is  said,  are 
constantly  burning. 

"  And  bird-like  poise  on  balanced  wing 
Above  the  town  of  King-te-tching, 
A  burning  town  or  seeming  so, — 
Three  thousand  furnaces  that  glow 
Incessantly,  and  fill  the  air 
With  smoke  uprising,  gyre  on  gyre, 
And  painted  by  the  lurid  glare, 
Of  jets  and  flashes  of  red  fire." 

— Longfellow  :  Keramos. 

Rapid  progress  was  made  in  the  art,  and  at  the  end  of  the 
Tenth  Century  coloured  enamel  was  first  applied  on  the 
pieces  baked  in  biscuit,  and  various  colours  such  as  several 


366  CHINA 

shades  of  violet  and  blue,  as  well  as  yellow  were  used. 
Buddhist  and  Taoist  figures,  flowers  and  the  Chinese  writ- 
ten characters,  which  have  for  so  many  centuries  lent  them- 
selves readily  to  decorative  art,  all  were  employed,  as  well 
as  fillets  in  relief. 

The  Chun  is  another  of  the  oldest  kinds  of  porcelain. 
The  factories  for  its  production  were  in  existence  in  the 
Tenth  Century  at  the  beginning  of  the  Sung  dynasty.  One 
native  work  says  : — 

"  The  highest  quality  consists  of  pieces  having  a  colour 
as  red  as  cinnabar,  and  as  green  as  onion  leaves  and  king- 
fisher's plumage  .  .  .  and  the  purple  brown  colour  of 
the  skin  of  an  egg-plant  fruit,  or  of  pieces  red  like  rouge, 
green  like  onion  leaves  and  kingfisher's  plumage  and  pur- 
ple like  ink-black, — these  three  colours  being  pure  and  not 
in  the  slightest  degree  changed  during  the  firing." 

Kuan-yao,  mandarin  porcelain,  as  its  name  implies,  was 
produced  in  certain  Government  factories. 

Dr.  Hirth  describes  the  specimen  seen  by  him  as  "  of  a 
peculiar  brownish  green,  a  sort  of  bronze  colour,  called  by 
the  Chinese  ch'-a-cb'ing,  tea-green,"  but  the  varieties  de- 
scribed as  of  the  Sung  dynasty  are  "  white  and  thin  like 
paper ; "  "  another  was  very  much  the  same  as  Ko-yau 
[the  ancient  celadon  crackle]  with  three  gradations  in 
colour  constituting  their  value,  viz :  (i)  a  pale  cVing- 
green  ;  (2)  a  yellow  white  ;  and  (3)  grey.  The  Ko-ku-yao- 
lun  speaks  of  cb'ing-green  playing  into  pale  scarlet,  the 
shades  being  very  different  though  ;  the  best  ones  having  the 


PORCELAIN  AND  POTTERY          367 

"  crab's  claw  pattern "  and  "  a  red  brim  with  an  iron- 
coloured  bottom." 

Another  division  of  porcelains  was  the  Lung-ck'iian-yau 
and  Ko-yau^  the  real  old  celadons  described  as  of  a  "  sea-green 
mixed  with  bluish  or  greyish  tints,  neither  a  decided  green 
nor  anything  like  blue."  The  qualities  it  possesses  are 
"  thickness,  heaviness,  rich  olive,  or  sea-green  enamel,  white 
paste,  and  a  ferruginous  ring  on  the  bottom — the  paste  which 
was  originally  white,  turned  red  in  the  fire.  These  were 
produced  in  the  Sung  and  Yuan  dynasties  (A.  D.  960  to 
1368)  and  seem  to  have  been  carried  by  the  current  of 
mediaeval  Chinese  trade  into  Arab  possessions  and  other 
foreign  countries." 

We  quote  from  Galland's  work  the  following  interesting 
account  of  crackle,  that  curious  characteristic  of  many 
specimens  of  porcelain  : — 

"This  crackle  like  the  following  class  \c'eladori\  consists 
of  a  glaze,  white  or  coloured,  generally  covering  a  coarse 
paste  resembling  stoneware,  which  is  sometimes  of  quite  a 
red  colour.  Although  now  artificially  produced,  it  is  said, 
originally,  at  an  early  period,  to  have  been  discovered  by 
accident.  Crackle,  it  is  said  by  the  Chinese,  was  known 
during  the  southern  Sung  dynasty  (A.  D.  1127-1278). 
There  seem  to  be  various  ways  of  producing  this  ef- 
fect, which  appears  in  the  main  to  have  been  caused  by 
exposing  the  piece  to  a  sudden  drop  in  temperature, 
thus  causing  the  glaze  on  the  surface  to  contract  faster 
than  the  paste  or  biscuit,  and  so  break  into  sections,  which, 


368  CHINA 

when  baked,  become  crackle.  In  these  small  cracks  in  the 
glaze,  Indian  ink,  or  a  red  colour  were  sometimes  rubbed, 
thus  heightening  the  effect.  The  Chinese  were  so  com- 
pletely the  masters  of  the  process  that  they  could  turn 
out  at  will  crackle  of  any  size,  now  known  as  large, 
medium  and  small  crackle,  the  latter  being  called  by 
the  French  truit'e,  from  its  resemblance  to  the  scales  of  a 
trout." 

The  crackled  porcelain  known  as  tsui-k'i  in  the  Thir- 
teenth Century  was  also  a  product  of  this  first  or  primitive 
period  of  the  ceramic  art  in  China.  The  beautiful  coloured 
ground  tints,  chalcedony,  dull  violet,  yellow  and  Turkish 
blue,  so  much  valued  by  collectors,  began  to  be  used  in  the 
Thirteenth  Century. 

The  second  period,  the  Hsuan  Te,  comprises  the  reigns 
of  Hsuan  Te,  Cheng  T'ung,  and  Ching  T4ai,  lasting  from 
A.  D.  1426  to  A.  D.  1465.  Ceramic  art  was  still  in  a 
formative  stage  at  the  commencement  of  this  period,  not- 
withstanding the  advances  made  in  the  last  period.  Its 
characteristic  type  was  the  decoration  of  blue  flowers  under 
the  glaze.  This  blue  was  the  su-ni-po,  and  took  after  the 
firing  a  pale  blue.  This  porcelain  is  highly  esteemed  by 
the  Chinese.  M.  Paleologue  describes  the  pieces  thus 
produced  in  the  following  terms  :  "  Elles  ont,  en  effet,  un 
charm e  doux  de  colons  et  de  composition,  une  puret'e  de  tont  une 
delicatesse  a"  aspect  qui  nont  jamais  et'e  surpasses" 

Red  was  also  put  into  the  enamel  for  the  first  time  be- 
fore the  glaze  was  applied,  being  "  painted  on  the  paste  so 


PORCELAIN  AND  POTTERY  369 

that  the  red  designs  shone  through  the  glaze,  dazzling  the 
eyes.  It  is  described  as  obtained  by  powdering  rubies  from 
the  West,  but  this  is  impossible."  It  was  a  copper  silicate  j 
and  the  red  for  painting  over  the  glaze  was  prepared  from 
sulphate  of  iron  and  carbonate  of  lead.  This  mixture 
produced  a  fine  coral  red  and  to  procure  a  deep  enough  red, 
cornelian  was  employed. 

Amongst  other  work  produced  at  this  time  may  be 
mentioned  some  pottery  known  by  the  Portuguese  as 
boccaro :  the  fine  kind  of  this  ware  was  formed  into  tea- 
pots and  other  objects,  while  the  coarser  sort  was  em- 
ployed as  ornamentation  on  walls,  it  being  used  in  the 
famous  Porcelain  Tower  of  Nanking,  which  was  built 
A.  D.  1415-1430.  The  reign  of  Hsuan  Te  is  celebrated 
for  its  porcelain,  which  is  held  [by  some]  to  be  the  finest 
produced  during  the  Ming  dynasty  :  every  production  was 
of  the  highest  artistic  value.  Cups  were  made  of  a  bright 
red  or  of  sky  blue.  The  surface  on  some  cups  was  granu- 
lated like  the  skin  of  a  fowl  or  the  peel  of  the  sweet  orange. 
There  were  vases  crackled  like  glass,  or  with  veins  as  red 
as  the  blood  of  the  eel,  rivalling  in  beauty  the  porcelain  of 
Jou-chou  and  the  Kuan-yao.  The  bowls  decorated  with 
crickets  were  of  extraordinary  beauty. 

The  third  epoch,  that  of  Ch'eng  Hua,  includes  the 
reigns  of  Hung  Chih,  Cheng  Te,  Chia  Ching  and  Lung 
Ch'ing,  and  lasted  from  A.  D.  1465  to  1573.  Blue  porce- 
lain was  still  manufactured,  less  pure  materials  being  em- 
ployed in  place  of  the  su-ni-po. 


370  CHINA 

;  At  the  same  time  advances  are  noticeable  in  other  points, 
such  as  arrangements  of  colours  and  skill  in  designs,  etc. 
An  improved  quality  of  cobalt  seems  to  have  been  used 
(A.  D.  1521)  and  a  new  dark  blue  was  produced  ;  the  ob- 
jects made  in  it  commanded  a  high  price. 

"  In  the  Ch'eng  Hua  period  [that  of  the  reign  of  the 
sovereign  A.  D.  1465-1487]  lived  several  celebrated  artists. 
One  made  jars  which  he  decorated  on  the  upper  part  with 
the  moutan  (tree  peony)  in  flower,  and  below  a  hen  and 
chickens  full  of  life  and  movement.  There  were  also  cups 
with  handles,  painted  with  grapes;  wine  cups  ornamented 
with  figures  and  the  lotus ;  others  as  thin  as  paper,  painted 
with  blue  flowers ;  others  with  locusts.  The  enamelled 
were  especially  esteemed.  The  blue  on  the  ware  of  this 
period  is  inferior  to  the  Hsuan  Te,  but  its  paintings  and 
colours  surpass  any  that  preceded  them. 

Gilding,  which  was  first  employed  during  the  Yuan 
dynasty,  was  brought  to  perfection  during  the  reign  of 
Ch'eng  (A.  D.  1465-1489). 

In  the  Chia  Ching  period  (A.  D.  1522-1566),  the  dark 
blue  vases  were  alone  in  favour. 

Immense  quantities  of  porcelain  were  ordered  to  be 
manufactured  for  Imperial  purposes  in  A.  D.  1571  :  no 
less  a  number  than  105,770  pairs  of  different  kinds  of 
articles  and  in  1583  as  many  as  96,000  pieces,  but  remon- 
strances were  made  by  the  censors,  and  in  some  instances, 
at  all  events,  the  amounts  were  reduced.  This  wholesale 
ordering  and  consequent  enormous  production  has  flooded 


PORCELAIN  AND  POTTERY  371 

the  streets  of  Peking  with  porcelain  of  that  date,  "  where 
a  street-hawker  may  be  seen  with  sweetmeats  piled  on 
dishes  over  a  yard  in  diameter,  or  ladling  iced  syrup  out 
of  Ming  bowls,  and  there  is  hardly  a  butcher's  shop  without 
a  large  Ming  jar." 

The  fourth  period  is  styled  the  Wan  Li  period,  though 
it  covers  the  reigns  of  T'ai  Ch'ang,  T'ien  Ch'i,  and  Ch'ung 
Cheng  of  the  Ming  dynasty,  as  well  as  that  of  Shun  Chih 
of  the  present,  or  Ts'ing  dynasty  or  Ch'ing  and  lasted  from 
A.  D.  1573  to  J662. 

Green  and  the  "  five  coloured  porcelains "  were  the 
chief  products. 

The  fifth  epoch  is  that  of  the  reign  of  the  Emperor 
K'ang  Hsi  (A.  D.  1662-1723),  in  which  the  art  of  the 
manufacture  of  porcelain  attained  its  highest  eminence,  as 
M.  Paleologue  says  about  it : 

"  C'est  la  belle  epoque  de  la  porcelaine.  Les  precedes  se  sont 
perfectionn'es,  les  resources  des  c'eramistes  et  des  peintres  sont  plus 
riches  ;  d'autre  part  les  formes  sont  plus  beureuses  et  mieux 
ponder  ees,  la  composition  plus  savante  et  plus  variee ,"  les  color- 
ations ont  une  harmonie  douce  on  une  puissance  d' eclat  que  les 
pieces  anciennes^  avaient  rarement  realises." 

The  most  of  the  porcelain  of  this  period  may  be  grouped 
under  the  four  heads  of  white  porcelain,  green,  rose  and 
coloured  glaze. 

The  white  porcelain  was  made  in  Te-hoa  in  the  Fuh- 
kien  province;  the  Chinese  call  it  peb  tsz,  that  is,  "  white 
porcelain."  It  "  is  very  lustrous  and  polished,"  but  it  is 


372  CHINA 

very  thick.  It  was  used  with  good  effect  in  the  construc- 
tion of  statuettes  of  Buddhist  idols. 

The  white  is  not  confined  to  one  shade  but  runs  through 
all  the  varieties. 

With  regard  to  the  green  porcelain,  two  schools  sprang 
up :  one,  while  following  the  models  of  antiquity,  intro- 
duced a  grace  and  beauty  and  an  improvement  in  style 
wanting  in  the  old  works.  Flowers,  sprays  of  trees,  grasses, 
flights  of  birds,  beetles  and  dragon-flies,  all  lent  their  aid  to 
the  decorations  of  these  objects,  and  the  love  of  nature,  so 
inherent  in  the  Chinese,  had  full  scope,  while  in  combina- 
tion with  the  dominant  green,  appeared  red  and  touches  of 
yellow,  blue  and  violet ;  the  other  school,  while  paying  less 
attention  to  colouring,  had  able  brushes  and  skilful  hands 
which  were  employed  in  depicting  historical  or  religious 
scenes,  full  of  life  and  movement,  but  unfortunately  an 
Imperial  edict  in  A.  D.  1677  put  an  end  to  the  production 
of  such  scenes. 

Several  new  colours  were  discovered  about  A.  D.  1680. 
The  rose-colour  had  different  shades  of  "  exquisite  sweet- 
ness." The  commonest  subjects  employed  were  flowers 
and  birds,  amongst  the  former,  the  lotus  and  chrysanthe- 
mum were  favourites.  This  kind  of  porcelain,  however, 
was  further  perfected  in  the  following  period. 

Of  the  remaining  porcelains  of  this  epoch  the  celadons 
and  the  flamb'es  are  to  be  particularly  noticed.  With  re- 
gard to  the  former  they  were  not  first  produced  during  this 
epoch,  but  some  manufactured  now  were  perfect  gems  in 


PORCELAIN  AND  POTTERY  373 

brilliancy.  Turquoise-blue,  sea-green  and  a  suspicion  of 
violet  is  one  description  of  what  celadons  are,  and  all  these 
tints  are  often  met  blended  in  one. 

The^spotted  celadons  which  were  the  rage  in  France  in 
the  Eighteenth  Century  were  also  the  product  of  this 
period.  There  were  some  beautiful  specimens  of  flamb'es 
at  this  time :  one  is  described  as  resembling  precious  stones 
blended  together ;  but  it  is  in  the  next  period  that  these 
works  were  the  most  finished.  During  K>ang  Hsi's  reign 
crackled  china  was  brought  to  perfection. 

Amongst  other  noteworthy  productions  of  this  epoch  are 
to  be  named  the  tsang,  the  enamel  of  which  was  serpent 
green,  gold  yellow,  pale  yellow,  violet,  or  light  green ;  and 
this  variety  took  all  the  colours  of  bronze. 

The  sixth  epoch  is  that  of  Yung  Cheng  and  Ch'ien 
Lung,  A.  D.  1723  to  A.  D.  1796.  The  commencement  of 
the  period  marked  a  new  era  in  ceramic  art,  and  the  mod- 
ern school  may  be  said  to  have  then  begun.  The  artists 
of  the  modern  school  as  regards  the  processes  and  technical 
skill  are  the  equals  of  their  predecessors,  in  some  points 
they  are  even  superior  to  them,  as  for  example  in  the  egg- 
shell china  produced  by  them ;  but  at  the  same  time  there 
are  distinguishable  the  causes  which  resulted  in  the  deca- 
dence of  the  Chinese  porcelain  later  on,  for  the  ornament 
is  overdone,  the  tendency  being  to  cover  the  whole  surface 
with  arabesques,  branches  and  foliage. 

During  Yung  Cheng's  reign,  a  period  of  thirteen  years, 
the  ceramic  art  declined  and  very  little  fine  work  was  done. 


374  CHINA 

Yet  what  was  done  was  of  interest.  There  is  a  fine  egg- 
shell specimen,  very  thin,  often  decorated.  Some  pieces 
were  of  the  colour  of  an  egg  and  as  shining  as  silver. 
Others  were  imitations  of  the  ancient  wares,  especially  the 
five-coloured  Ming,  true  to  the  colour  of  the  porcelain, 
which  is  of  a  grayish  white,  but  rather  coarse  in  appearance, 
instead  of  a  clear  white,  like  the  K'ang  Hsi  work.  The 
colours  used  and  the  style  of  decoration  are  so  exact  that 
it  would  be  difficult  to  detect  the  difference,  were  it  not 
perhaps  for  the  introduction  of  certain  fruits,  the  peach 
and  pomegranate,  for  instance,  and  the  peculiar  modified 
shapes  of  at  least  the  beakers. 

The  "  hawthorn  pattern  " — really  the  "  prunus,"  which 
produces  its  blossoms  before  its  leaves — is  to  be  met  with 
bearing  very  early  date-marks ;  but  it  is  now  generally  held 
that  none  are  genuine  previous  to  Yung  Cheng  (1723-1730) 
and  "  the  finest  and  most  prized  examples  were  probably 
made  about  this  date." 

In  Ch'ien  Lung's  reign  many  varieties  of  china  were 
produced,  but  the  principal  types  may  be  ranged  into  four 
classes :  the  rose  porcelain,  egg-shell,  flamb'e  and  that  for 
exportation.  We  have  already  mentioned  the  first  under 
the  reigns  of  K'ang  Hsi  and  Yung  Cheng;  the  egg-shell 
porcelain  which  reached  its  perfection  about  A.  D.  1732  was 
a  most  delicate  production ;  the  flamb'e  porcelain  presents 
the  appearance  of  a  play  of  colours  and  as  we  have  already 
said  of  precious  stones  fused  together ;  currents  of  air  were 
rapidly  directed  on  the  vase  while  it  was  in  the  fire ;  the 


PORCELAIN  AND  PO1TERY  375 

Chinese  have  taken  their  inspiration  as  colourists  of  porce- 
lain from  nature,  whenever  rich  tones  or  a  play  of  colours 
presented  themselves;  the  porcelain  for  exportation  con- 
sists of  several  varieties,  such  as  Mandarin  porcelain,  where 
those  functionaries  figure  as  the  decorations.  This  porce- 
lain is  sent  to  Europe  and  is  very  inferior  in  character. 
There  is  also  porcelain  with  Persian  design  for  the  Persian 
market ;  and  Chinese  porcelain  exported  and  decorated  in 
Europe. 

The  seventh  epoch  is  the  present  period  commencing 
with  A.  D.  1796.  It  has  seen  no  progress,  but  is  rather  a 
period  of  decadence,  partly  due  to  the  excessive  demand  for 
Chinese  porcelain  of  any  style  or  character  in  the  West, 
and  also  as  well  to  the  diminution  of  artistic  judgment  in 
China. 

The  marks  on  Chinese  porcelain  chiefly  consist  of  a 
date,  or  rather  the  name  of  the  reign  of  an  Emperor,  or 
that  of  a  dynasty  or  both  combined.  The  workman's 
name  does  not  appear,  as  "  in  China  every  piece  passes 
through  the  hands  of  a  number  of  workmen,  each  con- 
tributing, his  fraction  to  the  decoration.  All  these  decora- 
tors being  other  than  the  potter  who  turned  the  vase,  and 
the  workman  who  glazed  it,  no  single  specimen  could  be 
marked  as  the  work  of  one  man." 

With  the  Chinese  collector  age  is  the  first  requisite,  and 
beauty  is  a  secondary  consideration. 


COINS  AND  ART 

ROBERT K.  DOUGLAS 

THE  coinage  of  China,  like  every  other  institution 
of  the  Flowery  Land,  has  two  aspects — the  one 
that  which  it  professes  to  be,  and  the  other  that 
which  it  really  is.  Strange  as  it  may  seem,  the  Chinese 
have  only  one  coin  which  is  known  to  them  as  cb'ten,  and 
to  us  as  cash.  In  value  a  cash  professes  to  be  about  one- 
tenth  of  a  halfpenny,  but  as  a  matter  of  fact  it  varies  in  al- 
most every  district,  and  it  is  not  even  at  all  uncommon  to 
find  two  kinds  of  cash  current  in  one  neighbourhood.  In 
some  parts  of  the  country  people  "  go  to  market  with  two 
entirely  distinct  sets  of  cash,  one  of  which  is  the  ordinary 
mixture  of  good  and  bad,  and  the  other  is  composed  ex- 
clusively of  counterfeit  pieces.  Certain  articles  are  paid  for 
with  the  spurious  cash  only.  But  in  regard  to  other  com- 
modities this  is  a  matter  of  special  bargain,  and  accordingly 
there  is  for  these  articles  a  double  market  price."  '  Inde- 
pendently again  of  the  confusion  arising  from  the  use  of 
genuine  and  counterfeit  coins  side  by  side,  is  added  the  un- 
certainty due  to  the  system  of  counting.  A  hundred  cash 
means  varying  numbers,  other  than  a  hundred  which  are 
determined  by  the  usage  of  each  locality.  A  stranger, 

A.  H.  Smith,  Chinese  Characteristics. 


COINS  AND  ART  377 

therefore,  is  liable  to  suffer  loss  at  the  hands  of  trades 
people,  who  still  further  complicate  matters  by  almost  in- 
variably naming  a  higher  price  for  each  article  than  that 
which  they  are  prepared  to  accept.  The  weight  of  any 
considerable  sum  in  cash  is  an  additional  objection  to  these 
most  inconvenient  coins.  A  dollar's  worth  of  cash  weighs 
about  eight  pounds,  and  the  transportation  of  any  large  sum 
in  specie  is,  therefore,  a  serious  matter.  For  the  purpose 
of  carriage  the  cash  are  made  with  square  holes  in  the 
centre,  by  means  of  which  they  are  strung  in  nominal  hun- 
dreds and  thousands.  It  is  obvious,  of  course,  that  for  the 
purpose  of  anything  commanding  more  than  a  very  low 
value  some  other  currency  must  be  employed,  and  this  is 
supplied  by  lumps  of  silver,  the  values  of  which  are  in  every 
case  tested  by  the  scales.  In  common  parlance  the  price 
of  goods  is  reckoned  at  so  many  taels  weight,  a  tael  being, 
roughly  speaking,  the  equivalent  of  an  ounce,  and  for  the 
sake  of  general  convenience  silver  is  cast  into  "  shoes,"  as 
they  are  called  from  their  shape,  weighing  a  specified  num- 
ber of  taels  or  ounces.  For  smaller  amounts  than  are  con- 
tained in  a  "shoe"  broken  pieces  of  silver  are  used,  but  in 
every  case  the  value  is  reckoned,  not  by  the  piece,  but  by 
the  weight.  In  strict  accuracy  even  the  cash  is  un- 
deserving the  name  of  coin,  since  instead  of  being  moulded 
it  is  roughly  cast,  and  both  in  design  and  manufacture  does 
little  credit  to  a  nation  which  is  unquestionably  possessed  of 
a  large  share  of  artistic  taste. 

Imperfect  and   undeveloped  though  it  is,  the  coinage  of 


378  CHINA 

China  has  a  very  long  ancestry,  and  can  trace  its  descent 
from  about  2000  B.  c.  One  of  the  earliest  shapes  which 
the  coins  took  was  that  of  a  knife,  no  doubt  in  imitation  of 
the  real  weapon,  which  was  early  used  as  a  medium  of  ex- 
change. These  knife  coins  originally  consisted  of  the  blade 
and  handle,  the  last  of  which  was  terminated  in  a  round 
end  which  was  pierced  in  imitation  of  the  article  which  they 
were  intended  to  represent.  By  degrees  the  blade  became 
shortened,  until  it  entirely  disappeared.  The  handle  next 
suffered  diminution,  and  eventually  the  round  end  with  a 
hole  in  the  centre  was  all  that  was  left,  and  it  is  that  which 
is  perpetuated  at  the  present  day  in  the  modern  cash. 

The  prominence  which  the  artists  of  Japan  have  of  late 
acquired  and  the  very  inferior  specimens  of  Chinese  work 
which  now  commonly  reach  our  shores,  have  blinded  peo- 
ple to  the  real  merits  of  the  pictorial  art  of  China.  The 
same  marked  and  peculiar  features  characterize  the  arts  of 
the  two  countries.  In  both  the  power  of  representing  with 
fidelity  birds,  fishes  and  flowers  is  remarkable,  and  an  ex- 
quisite skill  in  harmonizing  colours,  and  of  giving  life  and 
vigour  to  forms,  distinguishes  the  works  of  artists  on  both 
shores  of  the  Yellow  Sea.  In  like  manner  the  same  faults 
are  observable  in  both  schools.  Perspective  is  commonly 
defective,  the  anatomy  of  the  human  form  is  entirely  mis- 
understood, and  the  larger  animals,  such  as  horses  and  cattle, 
suffer  distortion  at  the  hands  of  the  artists.  One  noticeable 
feature  in  the  technicalities  of  the  art  is  the  absence  of 
shadow,  the  effect  of  which  is  produced  by  such  skilful 


COINS  AND  ART  379 

drawing  that  the  omission  is  scarcely  observed.  As  in  the 
case  of  every  fine  art  in  China,  the  most  precise  rules  are 
laid  down  to  guide  the  painter,  and  the  effect  is  observable 
in  a  certain  uniformity  in  pictures  of  landscapes  and  in  the 
groupings  of  figures.  The  ideal  landscape  of  the  guide- 
books consists  of  a  cloud-capped  mountain,  in  the  bosom  of 
which  a  temple  nestles  surrounded  by  trees,  one  of  which 
must  be  a  weeping  willow.  On  a  rocky  eminence  should 
stand  a  gaunt  and  bowed  pine-tree.  Near  this  must  be  a 
waterfall  crossed  by  a  rustic  bridge,  forming  a  link  in  a 
winding-path  which  leads  up  to  the  temple,  while  in  the  far 
distance  should  be  seen  sailing-boats  wending  their  ways  on 
the  much-winding  river  which  flows  round  the  foot  of  the 
mountain.  The  addition  of  a  couple  of  aged  chess-players 
seated  under  a  willow  tree  on  a  prominent  plateau  on  the 
side  of  the  hill  is  recommended  as  being  likely  to  give  life 
to  the  scene.  In  two  branches  of  their  art  Chinese 
draughtsmen  may  be  said  especially  to  excel.  In  the  cer- 
tainty with  which  they  draw  their  outlines  they  are  prob- 
ably unmatched,  except  by  the  Japanese  and  in  the  beauty 
of  their  miniature  painting  they  have  few  equals.  The 
skilful  use  of  his  brush  which  every  schoolboy  has  to  gain 
in  copying  the  hieroglyphic  characters  of  the  language  ac- 
customs him  to  sketch  forms  with  accuracy,  and  gives  him 
an  assured  confidence  in  the  drawing  of  his  outlines.  As, 
in  addition,  he  is  habituated  to  the  use  of  Indian  ink  in- 
stead of  lead  pencils,  he  is  aware  that  in  his  work  vestigia 
nulla  retrorsum^  and  that  a  false  line  must  always  remain 


38o  CHINA 

against  him  as  evidence  of  his  want  of  skill.  The  mastery 
thus  acquired  gives  him  that  wonderful  power  of  unfalter- 
ingly expressing  on  paper  the  scenes  he  wishes  to  delineate 
which  so  often  excites  the  astonishment  of  European 
draughtsmen.  The  practice  with  the  brush  stands  the 
miniature  painter  in  good  stead,  and  enables  him  to  lay  on 
his  colours  with  such  certainty,  and  with  so  unfailing  a 
steadiness  of  hand  and  eye,  that  he  is  able  to  represent  with 
clearness,  and  often  with  exquisite  beauty,  patterns  of 
microscopic  minuteness.  No  better  specimen  of  this  last 
phase  of  the  art  can  be  instanced  than  the  best  examples  of 
painting  on  porcelain.  For  delicacy  of  touch  and  richness 
of  colouring  these  are  often  masterpieces,  and  possess  a 
beauty  which  must  charm  every  tutored  eye. 

According  to  tradition  the  first  beginnings  of  art  in  China 
are  to  be  traced  back  many  centuries  before  Christ,  and 
were  devoted,  as  in  all  primitive  societies,  to  the  adornment 
of  the  palaces  of  kings  and  the  houses  of  the  great  nobles. 
If  historians  are  to  be  trusted,  the  rude  efforts  of  these  early 
artists  bore  traces  of  the  characteristics  which  have  marked 
so  distinctly  the  later  developments  of  the  art.  The  intro- 
duction of  Buddhism,  with  its  religious  mysteries,  its  sacred 
biographies,  and  its  miraculous  legends,  supplied  a  fresh 
motive  to  the  artists  of  China,  who  at  once  caught  the  in- 
spiration, although  they  treated  the  subjects  after  the  marked 
national  manner.  In  the  troublous  period  which  succeeded 
the  fall  of  the  Han  dynasty  (A.  D.  220),  art,  like  all  the 
other  accomplishments  which  flourish  best  in  times  of  peace, 


COINS  AND  ART  381 

fell  into  decay,  and  it  was  not  until  the  establishment  of  the 
Tang  dynasty  (A.  D.  618) — the  golden  age  of  literature  and 
culture — that  art  occupied  again  its  true  prominence  in  the 
estimation  of  the  people. 

It  is  at  this  period  that  we  find  the  objects  of  nature  rep- 
resented with  the  fidelity  and  skill  with  which  we  are 
familiar  in  Chinese  work.  Throwing  aside  the  martial  no- 
tions of  the  early  masters  and  the  religious  ideas  imported 
from  India,  the  native  artists  sought  their  subjects  in  the 
fields  and  woods,  on  the  mountainside  and  by  the  river's 
bank.  They  transferred  to  their  canvases  the  landscapes 
which  met  their  eyes,  the  flowers  which  grew  around  them, 
the  birds  as  they  flew  or  perched,  and  the  fishes  as  they 
darted  and  swam  in  the  clear  water  of  the  streams.  These 
they  depicted  with  the  minuteness  common  to  their  craft 
and  rivalled  in  lifelike  rendering  the  work  of  the  celebrated 
Ts'ao  (A.  D.  240),  of  which  it  is  said  that  having  painted  a 
screen  for  his  sovereign,  he  carelessly  added  the  representa- 
tion of  a  fly  to  the  picture,  and  that  so  perfect  was  the  il- 
lusion that  on  receiving  the  screen  Sun  K'uan  raised  his 
hand  to  brush  it  away.  As  time  advanced,  the  lamp  of  art 
again  grew  dim,  and  it  required  the  fresh  impetus  of  a  new 
dynasty  to  revive  its  brilliancy.  The  Sung  dynasty  (A.  D. 
960-1278)  was  rich  in  philosophers,  poets  and  painters,  and 
while  Chu  Hi  wrote  metaphysical  treatises  and  the  brothers 
Su  sang  of  wine  and  the  beauties  of  nature,  Ma  Yuen, 
Muh  Ki,  Li  Lungyen  and  a  host  of  others  painted  birds 
and  flowers,  landscapes  and  figures,  dragons  and  monkeys, 


382  CHINA 

together  with  all  kinds  of  other  beasts  which  walk  on  the 
face  of  the  earth,  or  are  supposed  to  do  so. 

With  the  rise  to  power  of  the  Mongol  dynasty  (1260) 
the  taste  for  the  religious  art  of  India  revived,  but  did  not 
eclipse  the  expression  on  canvas  of  that  love  of  nature  for 
which  both  the  Chinese  and  Japanese  are  so  conspicuous. 
But  still  painting  did  not  reach  the  high  level  to  which  it 
had  attained  in  the  earlier  periods,  and  as  of  every  other 
institution  of  China,  we  are  obliged  to  say  of  the  pictorial 
art,  "  the  old  is  better."  During  the  last  dynasty,  however, 
there  were  artists  whose  power  of  colouring  was  as  great  or 
even  greater  than  that  of  any  of  their  predecessors,  so  far  as 
we  are  able  to  judge.  With  infinite  skill  and  minute  real- 
ism they  painted  figures  in  a  way  which  commands  just  ad- 
miration. 


INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

HENRT  CHARLES  SIRR 

THE  embroidery  of  the  Chinese  is  peculiar  to  them- 
selves and  is  not  only  unequalled,  but  is  immeas- 
urably superior  to  that  of  any  other  nation ;  men 
execute  the  finest  specimens  of  embroidery,  which  is  that 
in  which  the  figures,  flowers,  etc.,  are  made  to  correspond 
on  both  sides ;  this  is  accomplished  by  working  with  two 
needles,  placing  each  stitch  over  the  one  previously  taken. 
Every  end  of  the  broidery  silk  is  carefully  worked  in,  and 
every  inequality  taken  from  it ;  the  most  beautiful  speci- 
mens of  embroidery  come  from  Soo-chow-foo,  and  parts  of 
the  interior  from  which  we  are  still  excluded. 

Embroidery  books  are  in  use,  in  which  the  most  approved 
styles  of  embroidering,  arrangement  of  the  colours  and  pat- 
terns, are  set  forth,  the  various  methods  of  embroidery  and 
appropriate  designs  for  each  article  being  fully  described. 
This  book  is  dedicated  to  those  "  who  belong  to  the  green 
window,"  which  signifies  to  the  working-classes,  as  all  those 
in  China  who  gain  their  bread  by  embroidery  are  said  to 
belong  to  the  green  window.  On  the  title  page  of  this  em- 
broidery-book is  depicted  an  old  man  who  unfolds  a  scroll, 
on  which  is  inscribed  "  those  who  would  be  wealthy  must 
be  industrious  "  ;  over  his  head  nocturnal  birds  are  flutter- 


384  CHINA 

ing,  to  indicate  watchfulness  and  wakefulness ;  there  are 
between  two  and  three  hundred  designs  in  this  work,  the 
price  of  which  was  forty  cash,  less  than  fourpence. 

The  gold  and  silver  filigree  work  of  the  Chinese  equals 
any  ever  produced  by  ancient  Venetian  masters,  and  their 
chasing  in  silver  is  unrivalled ;  the  extraordinary  accuracy 
and  delicacy  with  which  figures,  trees,  houses  and  animals 
are  delineated  within  a  less  space  than  a  quarter  of  an  inch, 
is  truly  astonishing. 

The  art  of  enamelling  on  silver  is  also  brought  to  great 
perfection  in  China  and  we  have  in  our  possession  specimens 
which  surpass  any  we  have  ever  seen  produced  in  Genoa ; 
their  skill  is  particularly  exemplified  in  the  method  of 
applying  ultra-marine,  which,  in  despite  of  wear  and  ex- 
posure to  the  atmosphere,  never  loses  the  beautiful  brilliancy 
of  colour  which  renders  ultra-marine  so  exquisitely  charm- 
ing. Enamelling  is  executed  in  various  districts  and 
provinces,  but  the  Chinese  affirm  that  the  best  manu- 
factures are  confined  to  the  neighbourhood  of  Nankin  and 
Soo-chow-foo. 

Glass-blowing  is  practised  by  the  Chinese  and  the  several 
instruments,  furnaces  and  processes  employed,  remind  us 
forcibly  of  the  method  adopted  by  the  ancient  Egyptians ; 
glass  for  mirrors,  bottles,  vases,  rings,  anklets,  bangles,  pins 
for  the  hair  and  innumerable  articles  of  all  descriptions  are 
manufactured.  The  rings,  anklets,  bangles  and  hairpins 
are  coloured  a  bright  emerald  green  in  imitation  of  jade  stone, 
which  is  a  species  of  agate  of  various  shades  of  green. 


INDUSTRIAL  ARTS  385 

The  beauty,  peculiarity,  delicacy  and  depth  of  the  carv- 
ings in  ivory,  tortoise-shell  and  sandalwood  are  well 
known  wherever  China  is  mentioned ;  the  instruments 
used  to  carve  the  card-cases  and  ivory  ornaments  are  a 
species  of  minute  chisels,  flat  or  bevelled  at  the  point ; 
some  of  these  tools  have  a  projecting  tooth  at  one  side  to 
enable  the  workman  to  carve  under  the  figures.  It  is  by  this 
process  that  many  of  the  figures  appear  to  be  carved  over  lace- 
work  ;  the  extreme  delicacy  of  this  carving  is  most  exquisite, 
exhibiting  in  perfection  the  laborious  patient  industry,  which 
is  invariably  characteristic  of  the  Chinese  nation. 

The  ivory  balls,  which  are  elaborately  carved  and  the 
ingenuity  with  which  they  are  constructed  have  long  ex- 
cited admiration  and  astonishment  at  the  artistic  skill  and 
means,  by  which  so  many  concentric  balls  can  be  carved 
one  within  the  other.  We  know  not  whether  any  one 
else  has  made  the  discovery  but  the  truth  is  that  each  ball 
is  constructed  of  two  pieces,  the  edges  of  which  are  finely 
scraped  down,  the  edge  of  one  hemisphere  being  made  to 
overlap  its  counterpart  with  the  greatest  exactitude ;  thus 
each  separate  ball  is  enclosed  one  within  the  other.  The 
joinings  are  then  united  by  a  peculiarly  strong  cement 
aided  by  the  employment  of  heat  and  pressure,  and  over 
each  joining  is  carved  various  devices.  Any  one  disposed 
to  make  the  expensive  trial  will  soon  ascertain  the  fact,  by 
the  application  of  continuous  liquid  heat  to  one  of  these 
balls,  which  will  open  at  the  joints  in  due  course  of  time. 

The   beautiful    lacquer-ware,   which    is    so    universally 


386  CHINA 

admired,  is  made  principally  near  Nanking,  being  con- 
sidered far  superior  to  that  which  is  made  in  Kwan-tung 
and  the  other  provinces. 

To  prepare  this  lacquer-ware  in  perfection  requires  a 
lengthened  period,  and  we  have  been  informed  by  a 
Chinese  manufacturer  that,  to  produce  a  fine  specimen 
elaborately  painted,  six  months  ought  to  elapse  between 
the  commencement  and  the  termination  of  the  work,  thus 
affording  time  for  each  coat  of  lacquer  to  become  thoroughly 
hardened  before  another  is  applied.  Copper-ware  is  also 
extensively  used,  being  manufactured  into  various  articles 
for  domestic  service,  such  as  bowls,  drinking-cups,  jars, 
etc.  These  utensils  are  painted  in  various  styles,  the 
most  beautiful  being  that  which  is  painted  to  resemble 
porcelain  ;  the  paint  invariably  is  put  over  the  surface  in 
a  full  body,  let  the  design  be  of  what  character  it  may. 

There  is  a  metal  used  by  the  Chinese  which  has  the 
aspect  of  silver;  the  natives  call  this  substance  white 
copper.  Pewter  is  also  used  to  manufacture  many  articles 
for  household  use ;  this  metal  is  first  prepared  in  thin 
sheets  and  is  then  made  into  bowls,  vases,  jars  and  cups. 

The  shoe-shops  present  a  very  attractive  appearance, 
as  the  uppers  of  the  shoes  are  invariably  made  of  silk, 
very  frequently  most  elaborately  embroidered  in  brilliant 
coloured  silks,  with  glittering  spangles  intermixed  among 
the  embroidery.  The  shoes  of  the  ladies,  sometimes  not 
more  than  three  inches  in  length,  have  soles  an  inch  and 
a  half  in  thickness,  with  heels  two  inches  in  height;  the 


INDUSTRIAL  ARTS  387 

edges  of  the  soies  are  painted  white,  both  for  the  feminine 
and  masculine  portion  of  bipeds.  For  the  soles,  felt  and 
buffalo  leather  is  used,  but  both  one  and  the  other  absorb 
and  retain  moisture  with  equal  facility  and  avidity,  conse- 
quently are  ill  calculated  for  the  purpose  to  which  these 
materials  are  applied. 

The  upper  portion  of  the  men's  shoes  are  also  em- 
broidered and  frequently  spangled,  possibly  the  colours 
are  less  brilliant  and  the  spangles  less  numerous;  the 
soles  of  the  men's  shoes  are  about  three  inches  in  thick- 
ness, very  broad  in  the  centre,  gradually  tapering  to  the 
toe,  where  it  is  terminated  in  a  point,  which  is  turned  up, 
and  these  shoes  are  invariably  made  without  heels. 

The  boots  worn  by  the  mandarins  and  wealthy  are 
always  made  of  black  satin,  without  embroidery,  the  legs 
of  these  boots  made  much  longer  than  requisite,  to  allow 
the  satin  to  lie  in  folds  about  the  calf  of  the  leg  ;  the 
soles  are  made  of  the  same  material,  thickness  and  shape, 
as  before  described. 

The  paper  which  is  prepared  for  fans,  the  painted 
feather  fans,  the  fans  to  the  figures  upon  which  are 
affixed  beautifully  painted  ivory  visages,  are  all  too  familiar 
to  need  special  remark.  In  conclusion  we  must  observe 
that  in  all  the  arts  and  manufactures  known  in  China 
(with  the  exception  of  cutlery,  locks  and  all  descriptions 
of  steel  or  iron  work,  which  are  as  rudely  constructed  and 
finished  as  possible),  the  natives  bestow  extreme  care  in  the 
execution  of  their  work. 


A     000001  116     3 


